r 


REESE   LIBRARY 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CAti^QRNIA. 

ive  J  C/'  ,18$. 


[Frontispiece.] 


115    EXPERIMENTS 

ON    THE 

CARRYING   CAPACITY   OF   LARGE, 
RIVETED,    METAL   CONDUITS, 

UP  TO  SIX  FEET  PER  SECOND  OF 
VELOCITY  OF  FLOW. 


CLEMENS    HERSCHEL, 

HYDRAULIC  ENGINEER, 
S.B.  (Harvard,   1860);    Past  Pres.  Boston  Sec.   C.  E.; 

M.  Am.  Soc.   C.   E.  ;   M.  Inst.   C.  E.  ; 

Superintendent  and  Engineer  of  the  East  Jersey  Water  Co. 
of  New  Jersey. 


"  If  we  wish  accurate  knowledge  of  the  area  of  a  sharply  bounded  field,  is  it  not  better  to 
take  a  steel  tape  and  a  first-class  modern  transit  and  go  out  and  survey  it,  making  a  clean, 
fresh,  first-class  job,  instead  of  hunting  among  the  archives  and  averaging  the  more  or  less 
rough  surveys  of  the  past  hundred  years  ?  "— JOHN  R.  FREEMAN,  M.  Am.  Soc.  C.  E.  ( Tr.  Am. 
Soc.  C.  £.,  1890,  l,  82). 


IRST    EDll^ION. 
RST    THOUSAND. 


NEW    YORK : 

JOHN    WILEY    &    SONS. 

LONDON:    CHAPMAN  &  HALL,  LIMITED. 

1897. 


Copyright,  1897, 

BY 

CLEMENS  HERSCHEL, 


ROBERT    DRUMMOND,    ELECTROTYPER    AND    PRINTER,    NEW    YORK. 


PREFACE. 


OF  the  115  experiments  discussed  in  this  little  book,  84 
are  original,  and  now  for  the  first  time  published.  These 
are,  also,  mostly  experiments  on  a  class  of  conduits  on  which 
no  experiments  have  yettbeen  printed,  so  far  as  the  author 
knows.  They  are  a  contribution  to  knowledge  on  the  sub- 
ject by  the  East  Jersey  Water  Company  of  New  Jersey. 

This  book  is  also  intended  to  record  a  remarkable  and 
instructive  incident  in  the  development  of  knowledge  con- 
cerning the  carrying  capacity  of  large  riveted  conduits. 
From  the  day  when  the  carrying  capacity  of  the  Rochester, 
N.  Y.,  conduit  was  stated  then  to  be  9,292,800  U.  S.  gallons 
per  24  hours,  in  an  official  report  by  a  public  officer,  down 
to  the  time  when  a  number  of  gentlemen  engaged  in  an  im- 
portant public  enterprise  suffered  the  loss  of  no  inconsiderable 
sum  of  money,  not  to  speak  of  mortification  and  annoyance, 
in  direct  consequence  of  this  most  reckless  and  unfounded 
statement,  nineteen  years  had  elapsed,  and  the  parties  repre- 
senting cause  and  effect  were  widely  separated,  and  strangers 
to  each  other.  Once  again  had  been  illustrated  the  moral 
law  which  makes  evil  produce  a  chain  of  evil,  and  makes  the 

guiltless  suffer  both  for  and  by  the  acts  of  the  guilty. 

iii 


IV  PREFA  CE. 

To  his  principals  during  the  years  from  1889,  and  at  the 
present  time,  who  by  their  steadfast  support  have  given  him 
the  opportunity  in  a  fitting  manner  to  publish  this  record, 
and  to  the  many  friends  in  the  profession  who  chose  to  con- 
vey to  him  avowals  of  their  continued  loyalty  and  good-will 
during  a  brief  period  when  to  do  so  was  plainly  not  in  the 
fashion,  the  thanks  and  appreciation  of  the  author  are  here 
publicly  expressed. 

CLEMENS  HERSCHEL. 

2  WALL  ST.,  NEW  YORK  CITY, 
February,  1897. 


OF    THK 

UNIVERSITY 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER    I. 
Introductory  and  Historical 


CHAPTER    II. 

Computation  of  a  48"  Riveted  Conduit  between  Oct.  1889  and  Dec.  22, 

1889 7 

CHAPTER    III 
The  Rochester  Crime  against  Hydraulic  Engineering 13 

CHAPTER    IV. 

Experiments    on    Riveted   Conduits,  mostly  made    subsequent  to  the 

Rochester  Exposure  of  1890 25 

CHAPTER   V. 
Q  and  h 36 

CHAPTER    VI. 
The  Coefficient  c  in  v  =  c^rs   . . . . 51 

CHAPTER   VII. 
v  =  Tabulated  c  X  Vrs • -  -  •     61 

APPENDIX. 

Note  A 8 1 

Note  B 82 

Note  C 93 

Note  D 117 

v 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


Interior  View  of  42"  Conduit  No.  2  (Looking  Down-stream).  .Frontispiece 
I.  Interior  View  of  42"  Conduit  No.  2  (Looking  Up-stream).  .Facing page  33 

II.  48"  Venturi  Meter  set  in  Line  of  48"  Conduit  No.  2 "         "41 

III.  Diagram  of  Experiments  on  Venturi  Meters "         "     43 

IV.   Diagram  of  Experiments  on  48"  Conduit  No.  i "         "     51 

V.   Diagram  of  Coefficients  appurtenant  to  48"  Conduit  No.  i.       "         "     52 

VI.   Diagram  of  Experiments  on  36"  Conduit "         "     52 

VII.  Diagram  of  Coefficients  appurtenant  to  36"  Conduit.. .    .         "         "52 

VIII.   Diagram  of  Experiments  on  42"  Kearney  Extension "         "     52 

IX.  Diagram  of  Coefficients  appurtenant  to  42"  Kearney  Ex- 
tension        "         "     52 

X.   Diagram  of  Experiments  on  48"  and  42"  Conduit  No.  2. .       "         "     52 
XI.  Diagram  of  Coefficients  appurtenant  to  48"  and  42"  Con- 
duit No.  2 "         ««     52 

XII.  60"  Venturi  Meter  now  set  in  Line  of  the  Allegheny  City 

Water- works  60"  Conduit "         "     55 

XIII.  Portrait  of  Chezy «'         "     74 

Fig.  i.   Venturi  Meter Page  113 

Fig.  2.  Register  of  the  Venturi  Meter, ,*.»»• "     116 


115     EXPERIMENTS    ON    THE    CARRYING 

CAPACITY    OF    LARGE,    RIVETED, 

METAL  CONDUITS. 


CHAPTER  I. 

INTRODUCTORY  AND  HISTORICAL. 

"  History  is  Philosophy  learned  from  examples." 
— THUCYDIDES  (abt.  454  to  396  B.C.). 

"  It  is  astonishing  how  a  solemn  manner  and  a 
noble  style  will  carry  unsupported  and  unfounded 
statements  without  dispute  for  generations." 
— HENRY  CABOT  LODGE, 

Scribner's  Magazine,  1897,  p.  234, 

PREVIOUS  to  1889  there  were  no  long,  rivet-jointed,  riveted 
conduits  east  of  the  Mississippi  or  of  the  Missouri  River, 
and  no  doubt  very  few,  if  any,  elsewhere,  the  world  over. 
The  nearest  approach  to  such,  on  the  Atlantic  seaboard,  were 
the  short  flumes,  or  trunks,  used  in  the  New  England  States, 
to  convey  water  to  turbine-wheels  for  power  purposes,  and  the. 
7. 5 -ft.  pipe  of  wrought  iron  carrying  the  waters  of  the  Croton 
Aqueduct  across  the  High  Bridge  over  the  Harlem  River. 
This  pipe  was  built  in  1861  by  that  veteran  engineer,  Gen. 
Geo.  S.  Greene,  happily  still  with  us  at  the  age  of  96,  and 
his  assistant,  Mr.  W.  H.  Dearborn.  There  were  also  some 
riveted  pipes  used  to  convey  natural  gas  in  Pennsylvania, 
having  flange  or  Converse  lock-joints,  and  a  conduit  laid  in 


2  CARRYING    CAPACITY  OF  METAL    CONDUITS. 

1876  to  supply  Rochester,  N.  Y. ,  with  water,  which  likewise 
was  a  riveted  tube  with  flange-joints,  or  bell-and-spigot  lead 
joints,  at  short  intervals. 

In  California  and  on  the  Pacific  coast  generally,  on  the 
other  hand,  such  continuously  riveted  conduits  had  been 
common  for  twenty  or  thirty  years  then  past.  The  lack  or 
coal  and  iron  in  those  States  made  it  necessary  to  import 
^water  and  other  pipes  from  abroad,  or  to  freight  them  from 
the  Atlantic  seaboard,  and  this  soon  led  to  the  adoption  of 
sheet-  and  plate-iron  riveted  pipes  as  a  matter  of  economy 
in  freight-bills.  This  class  of  pipes  is  described  in  "A 
Practical  Treatise  on  Hydraulic  Mining,  etc.,"  by  Aug.  J. 
Bowie,  Jr.,  M.  E.  (New  York,  Van  Nostrand);  in  papers  by 
Hamilton  Smith,  Jr.,  M.  Am.  Soc.  C.  E.,  in  the  Tr.  Am. 
Soc.  C.  E.,  1883  and  1884;  and  in  Hamilton  Smith's 
''Hydraulics"  (New  York,  John  Wiley  and  Sons,  1886). 
These  books  and  papers  contain  also  experiments  on  the 
discharge  of  such  pipes,  to  be  discussed  in  subsequent  chap- 
ters. At  present  it  need  only  be  said  that  the  largest  pipe 
experimented  on,  with  ordinary  velocities  of  flow,  had  a 
diameter  of  1.23  ft.,  while  the  largest  that  had  been  built 
in  California  up  to  1889  is  believed  to  have  been  a  conduit 
3.67  ft.  in  diameter,  built  for  the  Spring  Valley  Water  Com- 
pany of  San  Francisco. 

Between  June  1873  and  January  1876  the  city  of 
Rochester,  N.  Y.,  laid  a  line  partly  of  24",  partly  of  36" 
wrought-iron  riveted  pipe,  partly  of  24"  cast-iron  pipe. 
This  pipe-line  first  became  known  to  fame  through  the 
Annual  Report  of  the  Executive  Board  of  Rochester,  N.  Y., 
1877,  containing  also  the  Report  of  the  Chief  Engineer  of 


INTRODUCTORY  AND   HISTORICAL.  3 

Water-works  to  the  Executive  Board,  of  January  I,  1877. 
This  is  what  the  report  says  as  to  the  discharge  of  this  pipe- 
line:  "  Aside  from  the  crude  records  of  the  gate-keepers  at 
the  two  reservoirs,  and  which  can  have  no  scientific  value, 
only  one  careful  measurement  of  the  flow  from  Hemlock 
Lake  into  the  Storage  Reservoir  was  made  by  my  former 
able  assistant,  Mr.  L.  L.  Nichols.  This  was  done  by  a  very 
accurate  observation  of  the  rise  of  the  water-surface  in  the 
Storage  Reservoir  during  a  period  of  eight  hours ;  and  as  the 
exact  dimensions  of  the  basin  were  all  known,  the  quantity  of 
water  delivered  through  the  pipe  was  then  computed,  and 
found  to  be  at  the  rate  of  9,292,800  gallons  per  day.  These 
figures  refer  only  to  the  volume  contained  within  the  faces  of 
the  reservoir  banks,  and  without  any  allowance  whatever  for 
absorption  by  the  latter,  which  were  at  the  time  perfectly 
new  and  had  never  before  been  subjected  to  the  action  of 
water." 

This  remained  in  engineering  literature  the  only  experi- 
ment claimed  to  be  reliable  on  the  carrying  capacity  of  riv- 
eted pipes  larger  than  Darcy's  1 1  J-inch  sheet-iron  pipe  of 
1850,  larger  than  the  California  pipes  gauged  by  Hamilton 
Smith,  Jr.,  and  so  large  as  36"  in  diameter,  until  the  reading 
or  publication  of  the  paper  "On  the  Hydraulics  of  the 
Hemlock  Lake  Conduit  of  the  Rochester,  N.  Y.,  Water- 
Works,"  by  Geo.  W.  Rafter,  M.  Am.  Soc.  C.  E.,  read  Oct. 
21,  1891,  printed  in  the  Transactions  of  that  society,  Jan- 
uary 1892  ;  that  is,  a  matter  of  fifteen  years;  and  it  remained 
thus,  it  should  be  noted,  without  dispute,  and  without  even 
a  suspicion  expressed  concerning  its  integrity.  Even  then, 
as  will  be  seen  presently,  suspicion  and  attack  were  directed 


4  CARRYING    CAPACITY  OF  METAL    CONDUITS. 

as  late  as  1892  against  the  new-comer,  against  Mr.  Rafter  and 
his  supposed  heterodoxy,  instead  of  being  directed  against 
the  old-time  pretended  gauging  and  the  imposition  it  had, 
for  so  long  a  period,  been  practising  upon  students  of  hydro- 
mechanics and  upon  civil  and  hydraulic  engineers. 

In  October  1886  the  present  writer  made  a  series  of 
experiments  on  the  discharge  of  a  Q-foot  trunk,  or  flume,  at 
Holyoke,  Mass.,  recorded  in  the  Nov.  1887  number  of  the 
Tr.  Am.  Soc.  C.  E.  Unfortunately  this  flume  was  only 
about  153  feet  long,  that  is,  only  17  diameters  long,  and  as 
the  results  found  did  not  accord  with  those  stated  in  the 
Rochester  public  document  of  1877,  as  derived  from  "care- 
ful measurements"  by  an  "able  assistant"  who  had  made 
"very  accurate  observation  of  the  rise  of  the  water-surface" 
in  a  storage  reservoir,  due  to  the  discharge  of  a  36"  conduit 
some  10  miles  long,  this  circumstance  cast  great  discredit  on 
the  applicability  for  general  purposes  of  these  Holyoke 
results. 

This  impression  was  confirmed  by  the  new  results  not 
agreeing  with  those  found  by  Hamilton  Smith  and  by  Darcy 
for  riveted  conduits,  while  all  the  other  gaugings  that  have 
been  named  agreed  fairly  well  among  themselves.  So  that 
the  Holyoke  results  stood  alone,  unsupported  and  uncon- 
firmed by  a  single  one  of  those  found  from  any  previous  pub- 
lished experiments. 

Under  the  circumstances  it  is  plain  that  the  remarks  then 
made  concerning  the  Holyoke  results  were  entirely  justifiable. 
This  is  what  is  said  about  them  in  the  paper  referred  to :  "I 
judge  from  the  disagreement  of  the  results  above  given  with 
those  found  at  other  places,  but  on  longer  tubes,  either  that 


INTRODUCTORY  AND   HISTORICAL.  5 

piezometers  do  not  correctly  indicate  the  h  of  the  formula 
{see  Hamilton  Smith's  '  Hydraulics '),  or  else  that  a  uniform 
and  non-accelerative  regime  of  the  flow  of  water  through  the 
trunk  had  not  become  established  in  the  comparatively  short 
length  at  command  for  purposes  of  measurement." 

In  the  fall  of  1889  the  author  came  to  New  York  to  take 
charge  of  the  construction  of  the  plant  of  what  subsequently 
became  the  East  Jersey  Water  Company;  a  company  organ- 
ized for  the  purpose  of  building  primarily  water-works  of  a 
capacity  to  supply  to  Newark  50  million  gallons  daily 
(77.4  cubic  feet  per  second).  By  the  contract  entered  into 
Sept.  24,  1889,  these  works  had  to  be  completed  on  May  i, 
1892,  and  in  September  1889  it  had  not  yet  been  definitely 
decided  from  what  drainage-area  the  water-supply  should  be 
taken,  the  contract  providing  that  it  might  be  taken  from  one 
of  three  named  valleys. 

It  therefore  soon  became  evident  that  masonry  conduits, 
and  cast-iron  pipes  as  well,  were  excluded  by  the  terms  of  the 
contract.  As  finally  located,  it  was  required  that  a  conduit, 
to  act,  in  places,  under  340  feet  head,  and  not  smaller  than 
48"  in  diameter,  2 1  miles  long,  should  be  built  in  an  economi- 
cal manner  in  two  working  seasons.  No  long  48"  cast-iron 
pipe  conduit  had  been  used  under  such  a  head,  nor  could  one 
be  built  2 1  miles  long,  in  two  working  seasons.  For  many 
reasons  cast  iron  was  practically  excluded  by  the  require- 
ments of  the  contract,  and  the  choice  of  the  riveted-steel 
conduit  adopted  was  thus  born  of  the  necessities  of  the  situa- 
tion. 

The  consequent  works  of  the  East  Jersey  Water  Company 
have  been  described  by  the  author  in  the  September  1893 


O  CARRYING    CAPACITY  OF  METAL    CONDUITS. 

number  of  the  Journal  of  the  New  England  Water-works 
Association.*  At  present  we  are  only  concerned  with  the 
48"  riveted-steel  conduit,  2 1  miles  long,  and  a  36"  branch,  5 
miles  long,  forming  a  part  of  these  works,  and  other  conduits 
built  in  1895  and  1896. 

*  See  also  Engineering  News,  June  15,  July  6  and  13,  1893  ;  and  Foreign 
Abstracts,  Inst.  C.  E.,  vol.  114. 


CHAPTER  II. 

COMPUTATION  OF  A  48"   RIVETED  CONDUIT  BETWEEN 
OCT.  1889  AND  DEC.  22,  1889. 

"  Looking  back  with  the  cheap  wisdom  which  is 
supplied  by  the  event,  it  is  not  difficult,"  etc.,  etc. 
LECKY,  1896.     Democracy  and  Liberty,  Chap.  VI 

"  Tadeln  konnen  zwar  die  Thoren, 

Aber  kliiger  handeln  nicht." — LANGBEIN,  1788. 
(Though  the    shallow-witted    can   criticise,   they 
could  not  have  acted  more  wisely.) 

IT  has  been  stated  above  what  were  the  available  data  in 
1889  from  which  to  compute  the  carrying  capacity  of  a 
riveted  conduit.  The  chief  of  these,  because  nearest  to  the 
size  and  velocity  to  be  provided  for,  was  the  stated  and  uni- 
versally accepted  Rochester  gauging  of  1876.  And  as  Mr. 
Emil  Kuichling,  M.  Am.  Soc.  C.  E.,  had  taken  a  prominent 
part  in  the  design,  construction,  and  operation  of  the 
Rochester  conduit,  he  was  engaged  in  October  1889  to  aid 
in  the  design  of  the  riveted  conduit,  then  contemplated.* 

What  then  was  the  "state  of  the  art  "  of  computing  the 
carrying  capacity  of  a  riveted  conduit  which  any  two  engi- 
neers charged  with  such  an  undertaking  in  1889  ^ac^  to  con- 
front them  or  to  enlighten  them  ? 

Darcy's   I  ij"  plate-iron  pipe  of  1850— exact  construction 

*  See  Note  A  in  the  Appendix. 


8  CARRYING    CAPACITY  OF  METAL    CONDUITS. 

not  stated,  other  than  that  it  was  no  doubt  riveted  and  had 
been  dipped  in  asphalt  * — gave  a  discharge  greater  than  if  it 
had  been  new  cast-iron  pipe. 

Hamilton  Smith's  riveted  pipes  all  gave  discharges  uni- 
formly greater  than  or  equal  to  those  given  by  new  cast-iron 
pipe. 

The  Rochester  36"  riveted  pipe  had  been  officially  lauded 
as  having  shown  a  discharge  which  would  indicate  a  coefficient 
equal  to  134  ±  3$,  under  conditions  which  would  cause  new 
cast-iron  pipe  to  have  a  coefficient  of  about  124.  That  is, 
the  Rochester  riveted  36"  pipe  had  been  officially  reported  to 
have  a  discharge  some  8$  greater  than  new  cast-iron  pipe, 
other  chings  being  equal. 

The  only  published  or  then  known  experiments  on  riveted 
pipe  that  had  given  discordant  results  were  those  by  the 
author  on  the  Holyoke  9-foot  conduit  only  17  diameters  in 
length,  that  is,  similar  to  a  piece  of  an  ordinary  f "  service- 
pipe  less  than  1 1  inches  long,  which  for  the  reasons  stated 
above  were  not  considered  reliable  for  general  application. 

Working  independently,  both  Mr.  Kuichling  and  the 
author  treated  large  riveted  pipe  therefore  as  of  equal  carry- 
ing capacity  with  new  cast-iron  pipes.  To  do  so  had  been 
the  final  result  of  Hamilton  Smith's  studies,  as  laid  down  in 
his  book  "Hydraulics,"  of  1886,  the  genesis  of  which  was 
well  known  to  the  present  writer,  and  whose  author  he  had 
personally  known  while  the  book  was  in  press,  and  then,  as 
since,  held  in  high  estimation  as  a  most  conscientious  experi- 


*  Presumably  this  pipe  was  similar  to  the  sheet-iron  and  asphalt  pipes 
used  by  Darcy  in  Dijon,  and  described  in  his  book  entitled  "  Les  Fontaines 
Publiques  de  la  ville  de  Dijon  "  (Paris,  1856). 


COMPUTATION  OF  A  48"   RIVETED    CONDUIT.  9 

menter  and  hydraulic  engineer.  To  do  so  had  been  the  prac- 
tice of  a  long  list  of  able  engineers,  here  and  abroad,  who  are 
in  print  to  that  effect;  and  even  so  late  as  1892,  as  has  been 
stated,  prominent  engineers  in  this  country  still  did  so.*  And 
it  is  no  attack  upon  the  profession  to  make  this  statement, 
nor  to  quote  the  authorities  for  making  it.  Nor  is  it  depre- 
ciatory of  the  science  or  the  profession  of  the  civil  engineer. 
Knowledge  on  such  a  subject  as  the  computation  of  the  dis- 
charge of  riveted  conduits  can  progress  no  faster  than  the 
making  or  the  publication  of  experiments  upon  such  dis- 
charges. And  when  the  poison  of  an  erroneous  statement 
has  once  been  instilled  into  the  data  on  which  is  founded  a 
branch  of  human  knowledge  of  this  sort,  it  cannot  fail  to  work 
incalculable  mischief,  until  every  particle  of  it  has  again  been 
removed. 

Of  course  there  was  no  time  in  the  fall  of  1889  to  make 
new  experiments,  as  actual  construction  work  had  to  be  prose- 
cuted energetically.  The  "  state  of  the  art  "  had  to  be  taken 
as  it  then  was,  and  writers  on  hydraulic  engineering  who  had 
given  the  carrying  capacity  of  riveted  pipe  any  attention,  here 
and  in  Europe,  from  1877  up  to  October  1890,  had  been 
deceived  by  the  officially  published  pretended  gaugings  of 
1876  of  the  Rochester  conduit.  Thus  they  remained  until 
Mr.  Rafter's  gaugings  were  made  in  July  and  August  1890, 
and  showed  that  the  Rochester  conduit  was  carrying  about 
2\  million  gallons  less  than  it  had  been  credited  with,  a  rumor 
of  which  result  was  soon  spread  abroad.  It  was  this  rumor 
that  gave  rise  to  the  first  suspicion  that  the  1877  report  was 

*  See  Tr.  Am.  Soc.  C.  E.,  1892,  I,  p.  28. 


IO  CARRYING    CAPACITY  OF  METAL    CONDUITS. 

not  to  be  relied  on,  and  this  suspicion  became  evidence,  to 
those  who  were  sufficiently  informed  to  accept  it  as  such, 
when  Mr.  Rafter's  paper  was  read  in  October  following. 

Between  October  1889  and  the  end  of  that  year,  Mr. 
Kuichling  therefore  computed  the  Newark  pipe  exactly  as 
though  it  had  been  a  new  cast-iron  pipe.  The  formula  used 
was  that  of  Lampe : 

n  f1'802 

*=y  =  0.000392 1 1-^. 

The  result  was  a  pipe  47  inches  in  diameter,  on  a  slope  of 
1 1. 8  ft.  per  mile. 

This  computation  the  author  checked  by  the  use  of  the 
table  on  page  271  of  "  Hydraulics,"  of  Hamilton  Smith,  Jr., 
and  Mr.  Kuichling's  result  was  changed  to  a  pipe  nowhere 
less  than  47^  inches  in  diameter,  on  a  slope  of  2  per  1000, 
or  10.56  per  mile,  which  is  a  trifle  more  than  called  for  by 
the  Lampe  formula;  a  formula  which  the  Rochester  gauging 
of  1877  was  then  supposed  to  have  confirmed,  established, 
and  even  exceeded. 

No  allowance  was  made  in  the  computation  for  deteriora- 
tion of  carrying  capacity  by  the  formation  of  tubercles.  This 
was  omitted  because  it  was  then  supposed  that  steel  pipes 
would  not  deteriorate  in  this  way,  like  cast-iron  pipes ;  or,  as 
stated  in  Hamilton  Smith's  "Hydraulics"  above  quoted, 
would  remain  free  from  rust  and  tubercles.  The  author  has 
no  recollection  of  having  especially  discussed  this  subject  in 
1889,  or  prior  to  July  1890,  or  consulted  any  one  about  it 
then,  and  he  accepts  professional  responsibility  for  the  omis- 
sion to  provide  for  deterioration  of  carrying  capacity  by 


COMPUTATION  OF  A   48"   RIVETED    CONDUIT.  II 

slime,  spongilla,  or  other  causes  in  the  steel  conduit,  as  has 
since  been  shown  necessary. 

It  may  be  that  somewhere  there  was  an  engineer  who 
had  published  reliable  gaugings  prior  to  January  i,  1890, 
that  showed  or  indicated  the  true  discharge  of  large  riveted 
conduits.  If  such  there  was,  his  publication  has  not  at  date 
of  writing  been  discovered  in  this  latitude.  What  we  do 
know  is  that  all  engineers  who  wrote  upon  the  discharge  of 
riveted  conduits  prior  to  1890  treated  them  or  found  them 
the  same  in  capacity  of  discharge  as  smooth,  new  pipes.* 

This  history  also  shows  the  dependence  of  hydraulic 
science  upon  the  altruistic  duty  of  its  practitioners  to  publish 
their  experiments  and  discoveries,  in  order  that  it  may  in- 
crease and  they  as  a  profession  may  advance  in  knowledge, 
and  be  the  better  able  to  cope  with  the  world's  needs  and 
work. 

Incidentally  it  also  shows  the  need  and  prospective  utility 
of  hydraulic  observatories:  something  the  world  has  confess- 
edly been  sighing  for  since  the  days  of  Galileo.  Happily, 
also,  this  need  is  now  in  process  of  being  removed  by  several 
hydraulic  testing  flumes  and  observatories  recently  con- 
structed in  the  United  States  by  engineering  schools. 

Before  taking  up  a  discussion  of  the  cause  of  the  delusion 
or  deceit  under  which  all  these  men  and  the  branch  of  hy- 
draulic engineering  now  under  discussion  had  been  laboring 
until  August  1890,  or  later,  it  may  be  well  briefly  to  state 
the  outcome  of  the  computation  considered  in  this  chapter. 
The  conduit  described  began  to  deliver  water  April  26,  1892, 

*  See  Note  B  in  the  Appendix. 


12  CARRYING    CAPACITY  OF  METAL    CONDUITS. 

and  the  draught  upon  it  was  some  20  odd  million  gallons  per 
day  until  January  10,  1896.  On  that  date  two  large  muni- 
cipalities, instead  of  one,  began  to  draw  upon  it,  and  its 
capacity  was  then  determined  to  be  about  35  million  gallons. 
When  new,  this  capacity  had  probably  been  about  43  million 
gallons;  that  is,  in  4  years  it  had  lost  8  million  gallons  of 
capacity.  The  use  of  flashboards  on  the  dam  raised  the  dis- 
charge to  36  million  gallons  (coefficient  of  up-stream  end  of 
pipe  about  91.5);  and  a  scouring  the  pipe  received  from 
anchor-ice  increased  this  to  37.5  million  gallons  (coefficient 
about  98,  or  7$  increase  of  coefficient  on  the  first  10,000  or 
12,000  ft.  in  length  of  the  pipe).  Experiments  upon  this 
conduit  will  follow  in  later  chapters. 


CHAPTER    III. 

THE   ROCHESTER  CRIME  AGAINST   HYDRAULIC 
ENGINEERING. 

"  Das  eben  ist  der  Fluch  der  bosen  That, 
Dass  sie  fortzeugend  immer  Boses  muss  geba"ren." 
— SCHILLER,  1800.      Die  Piccolomini  (5,1). 

(Precisely  this  the  curse  of  evil  deed, 

That  breeding  on,  it  ever  evil  must  produce.) 

"  Cosmos,  Duke  of  Forence,  was  wont  to  say  of 
perfidious  friends  that  '  We  read  that  we  ought  to 
forgive  our  enemies  ;  but  we  do  not  read  that  we 
ought  to  forgive  our  friends.'  " 

—  BACON,  1561-1626.      Apothegms,  No.  206. 

THERE  has  been  a  singular  disposition  in  certain  places 
to  shield  and  palliate  the  publication  of  the  pretended  gj- 
million-gallon  gauging  at  Rochester,  N.  Y.,  of  1876.  It 
has  gone  to  the  extent  of  endeavoring  to  prove,  or  to  cause 
the  impression  to  prevail,  long  after  it  should  have  been 
known  to  be  a  mere  "  fake,"  and  down  to  the  present  time, 
that  it  had  been  correct  when  the  pipe  was  new;  the 
explanation  being  vouchsafed,  or  intimated,  that  it  had 
diminished  2j  million  gallons,  or  25$,  in  carrying  capacity  in 
sixteen  years.  The  assistant  engineer  who  made  the  gaug- 
ings  in  1876  has  been  praised  as  entirely  reliable  and  unusually 
able  in  this  especial  line,  and  so  the  fog  has  been  invoked  to 
settle  down  upon  the  subject. 

13 


14  CARRYING    CAPACITY  OF  METAL    CONDUITS. 

But  this  will  not  do  in  the  interests  of  an  advancement 
of  learning  or  of  knowledge.  Scientific  data  must  be  judged 
by  methods  making  at  least  some  attempt  at  scientific  pre- 
cision, and  the  statements  made  in  the  Rochester  official 
report  of  1877,  concerning  the  carrying  capacity  of  the 
Rochester  riveted  conduit  in  1876,  must  stand  their  trial  in 
due  form  before  hydraulic  engineers. 

These  were  the  statements  referred  to : 
'  During  the  construction  of  the  conduit,  I  stated  that  its 
capacity  would  be  about  7,000,000  gallons  per  day  in  accord- 
ance with  my  calculations  from  standard  hydraulic  formulas ; 
but  from  some  careful  measurements  which  have  since  been 
made,  it  was  found  that  the  actual  flow  was  greatly  in  excess 
of  the  amount  stated,  being  in  fact  about  9,293,000  gallons. 
As  the  difference  between  the  actual  and  calculated  flows  is  here  • 
exceedingly  marked,  I  have  thought  that  a  brief  statement  of 
the  original  computations,   together  with  a  comparison  of  a 
number  of  hydraulic  formulas  in  common  use,  may  perhaps 
be  interesting  to -our  citizens,   and  particularly  to  hydraulic 
engineers. 

"  It  is  to  be  regretted  that  from  want  of  time  a  series  of 
reliable  and  long-continued  observations  in  regard  to  the 
actual  discharge  of  our  conduit  has  not  yet  been  made. 
Aside  from  the  crude  records  of  the  gatekeepers  at  the  two 
reservoirs,  and  which  can  have  no  scientific  value,  only  one 
careful  measurement  of  the  flow  from  Hemlock  Lake  into  the 
Storage  Reservoir  was  made  by  my  former  able  assistant,  Mr. 
L.  L.  Nichols.  This  was  done  by  a  very  accurate  observation 
of  the  rise  of  the  water-surface  in  the  Storage  Reservoir  dur- 
ing a  period  of  eight  hours ;  and  as  the  exact  dimensions  of 


THE  ROCHESTER    CRIME.  1 5 

the  basin  were  all  known,  the  quantity  of  water  delivered 
through  the  pipe  was  then  computed,  and  found  to  be  at  the 
rate  of  9,292,800  gallons  per  day.  These  figures  refer  only 
to  the  volume  contained  within  the  faces  of  the  reservoir 
banks,  and  without  any  allowance  whatever  for  absorption  by 
the  latter,  which  were  at  the  time  perfectly  new  and  had 
never  before  been  subjected  to  the  action  of  water.  But 
even  if  it  be  assumed  that  no  loss  of  water  occurred,  yet  the 
above-mentioned  discharge  is  nevertheless  far  in  excess  of  the 
quantity  obtained  from  the  hydraulic  formulas  in  common 
use,  as  will  be  seen  in  the  following." 

Under  date  April  6,  1891,  Mr.  Kuichling,  as  Chief  Engi- 
neer of  Water- works,  reports  thus : 

"THE   ORIGINAL   DISCHARGING  CAPACITY  OF   THE   CONDUIT. 

"The  conduit  line  was  practically  completed  and  water 
from  Hemlock  Lake  was  first  delivered  into  Rush  Reservoir 
on  January  22,  1876,  and  into  Mt.  Hope  Reservoir  on  the 
day  following.  Gaugings  of  the  capacity  of  the  conduit  were 
undertaken  soon  afterwards  by  the  late  L.  L.  Nichols,  C.E., 
who  was  one  of  the  assistant  engineers  employed  upon  the  con- 
struction of  the  works,  and  who  had  for  many  years  made  the 
subject  of  theoretical  hydraulics  a  special  study.  It  is  greatly 
to  be  regretted  that  Mr.  Nichols  did  not  write  out  a  detailed 
account  of  the  manner  in  which  he  made  his  observations  of 
the  discharge  of  the  conduit,  and  that  the  only  available  rec- 
ords of  these  gaugings  are  the  compactly  tabulated  figures  and 
memoranda  contained  in  two  certain  field-books  used  by  him, 
and  in  a  large  private  record-book  in  which  he  had  transcribed 
various  other  interesting  computations.  From  these  data  it  is 


16  CARRYING    CAPACITY   OF  METAL    CONDUITS. 

learned  that  the  discharge  of  the  conduit  into  Rush  Reservoir 
was  measured  on  four  different  occasions  during  the  year  1876 ; 
and  as  recent  gaugings  have  shown  a  flow  considerably  smaller 
than  what  was  then  obtained  by  Mr.  Nichols,  it  may  be  of  in- 
terest to  submit  here  the  original  memoranda  by  Mr.  Nichols, 
supplemented  by  such  other  information  relating  thereto  as  it 
has  been  possible  to  obtain. 

"  4  On  the  27th  day  of  January  (1876)  the  water  was  pass- 
ing through  the  pipe  from  the  lake.  At  o  h.  30  m.  P.M.  (Jan. 
27)  the  water  stood  6.40  feet  above  the  bottom  of  (Rush) 
Reservoir,  at  o  h.  30  m.  P.M.,  on  the  28th,  being  24  hours 
afterward,  it  stood  8.70  feet,  thus  making  the  quantity  (de- 
livered in  24  hours)  8,662,000  gallons.' 

"  'On  Jan.  31,  at  6  h.  15  m.  P.M.,  the  water  stood  12.25 
feet  (above  the  bottom  of  Rush  Reservoir),  and  on  Feb.  2,  at 
II  h.  45  m.  A. M. ,  it  stood  at  15.55  feet ;  hence  in  41  h.  30  m. 
the  delivery  was  13,999,000  gallons,  which  equals  8,000,000 
gallons  in  24  hours.' 

1 4  '  On  Feb.  7,  at  9  h.  o  m.  A.  M. ,  the  water  stood  16.25  feet 
(above  the  bottom  of  Rush  Reservoir),  and  at  9  h.  30  m.  P.M. 
of  the  same  day  it  stood  17.35  feet;  hence  in  12  h.  30  m.  the 
delivery  was  4,840,000  gallons,  which  equals  9,292,800  gal- 
lons in  24  hours.' ' 

. "  The  memoranda  furthermore  show  that  on  Feb.  2,  1876, 
the  water  in  Rush  Reservoir  stood  at  a  depth  of  15.60  feet  at 
2  h.  30  m.  P.M.,  and  at  15.70  feet  at  3  h.  30  m.  P.M.,  thus 
giving  during  one  hour  a  delivery  of  430,000  gallons,  which  is 
at  the  rate  of  10,320,000  gallons  in  24  hours.  The  duration 
of  this  observation  is,  however,  too  short  to  warrant  much  con- 
fidence in  the  result,  since  a  slight  error  in  noting  the  rise  of 


THE  ROCHESTER   CRIME.  I? 

the  water  would  make  a  proportionately  great  difference  in  the 
daily  flow. 

"  Another  gauging  was  made  on  July  21  and  22,  1876, 
with  discharge  at  the  same  time  from  Rush  Reservoir  into 
Mt.  Hope  Reservoir." 

This  last  gauging  is  then  discussed,  is  found  to  have  been 
erroneously  computed,  and  is  placed  by  the  reporting  Chief 
Engineer  at  8,861,280  gallons  in  24  hours;  instead  of 
8,248,573  gallons,  as  had  been  reported  by  Mr.  Nichols. 

The  conclusion  reached  is:  "Taking  into  account  the 
probable  losses  of  water  by  undiscovered  leakage  from  defec- 
tive joints  on  twenty  miles  of  newly  laid  conduit,  also  by 
absorption  into  the  bed  and  banks  of  the  new  reservoir,  etc., 
at  the  time  that  the  gaugings  were  made,  the  conclusion  now 
seems  thoroughly  justifiable  that  the  conduit  did  originally 
have  a  discharging  capacity  of  about  9,000,000  gallons  per 
day." 

Under  date  April  4,  1892,  the  same  Chief  Engineer  reports 
as  follows : 

'  *  Several  gaugings  of  the  discharge  of  the  conduit  into 
Rush  Reservoir  were  made  during  the  past  season,  and  from 
them  the  delivery  was  found  to  be  in  the  vicinity  of  7,000,000 
gallons  per  day,  as  was  found  in  the  previous  year.  Other 
delicate  tests  of  the  condition  of  the  pipe  were  also  made  in 
the  most  careful  manner;  and  from  the  data  thus  obtained, 
along  with  the  records  derived  from  the  self-recording  pres- 
sure-gauges at  the  two  reservoirs,  it  is  amply  demonstrated 
that  the  flow  has  been  practically  uniform  throughout  the 
whole  period,  varying  only  in  slight  degree  from  the  relative 
elevations  of  the  water  in  the  lake  and  the  reservoir." 


1 8  CARRYING    CAPACITY  OF  METAL    CONDUITS. 

Under  date  April  3,  1893,  we  find  this  statement: 

'*  Several  gaugings  of  the  discharge  of  the  conduit  into 
Rush  Reservoir  were  made  during  the  past  season,  and  from 
them  the  delivery  was  found  to  range  from  about  6, 820,000  to 
6,870,000  gallons  per  day  of  24  hours,  or  practically  the  same 
as  was  found  in  the  previous  year.  From  the  data  thus  ob- 
tained, together  with  the  records  of  the  self-recording  pressure- 
gauges  at  the  two  reservoirs,  it  is  demonstrated  that  the  flow 
has  been  practically  uniform  throughout  the  whole  period, 
varying  only  in  slight  degree  with  the  relative  elevations  of 
the  water  in  the  lake  and  the  reservoir." 

And  under  date  April  I,  1896,  this  review  of  all  the  gaug- 
ings of  the  Rochester  main  conduit  is  given  in  Chief  Engineer 
Kuichling's  report : 

"  The  gaugings  of  the  discharge  of  the  conduit  into  Rush 
Reservoir  during  the  past  season  showed  substantially  the 
same  delivery  as  during  the  previous  year,  and  from  the 
records  of  the  self-recording  pressure-gauges  at  the  two  reser- 
voirs it  is  seen  that  the  flow  has  been  practically  uniform 
throughout  the  whole  period,  varying  only  in  slight  degree 
with  the  elevations  of  the  water  in  the  lake  and  the  reservoirs. 
As  it  may  be  of  interest  to  compare  the  recent  gaugings  with 
those  formerly  made,  the  results  of  the  more  important  obser- 
vations are  herewith  submitted. 

"  It  should  also  be  noted  that  the  heads  under  which  the 
discharges  took  place  differed  somewhat,  but  by  reducing  the 
latter  to  the  normal  heads  little  difference  in  the  results  is 
found.  Both  sets  of  observations  refer  to  24-inch  pipe,  the 
length  being  51,450  feet,  with  an  average  fall  of  125.00  feet. 
This  length  embraces  15,419  feet  of  riveted  wrought-iron 
pipe,  the  rest  being  cast  iron. 


THE  ROCHESTER    CRIME.  19 

STATEMENT  D,  SHOWING  GAUGINGS  OF  DISCHARGE  OF  OLD  CONDUIT  BY 
MEASUREMENTS  OF  RISE  AND  FALL  OF  WATER-SURFACE  IN  RUSH 
RESERVOIR. 


Date. 

Section  of  Conduit. 

Duration 
of 
Experi- 
ment, 
Hours. 

Computed  Dis- 
charge in 
Gallons  per 
Day  of 
24  Hours. 

Jan.  27-28,  1876  
Jan.  31  —  Feb.  2,  1876  
Feb    7,  1876  

Hem 

lock  La 

" 

ke  t 

o  Ri 

ish  Res 

ervoir 

24 
4Ira 
12V£ 
29 
8 
5^ 
8 

8.662,000 
8,000,000 
9,292,800 
8,861.280 
*7,i8s,ooo 
7,142,000 
*6,853,5oo 
*6,8o5,6oo 
*6,goo,300 
*6,8o7,4oo 
*6,66o,ooo 

Oct    10   1890 

Mar   22    1891   .'... 

Sept.  24,  1892  ,  

May     ^    i8m 

Oct.   18,  1895  

NOTE. — The  gaugings  marked  with  an  asterisk  are  gross  discharges  of  the  pipe,  includ- 
ing evaporation  from  water-surface  and  percolation  through  bottom  of  reservoir. 

"  The  gaugings  of  1876  were  made  soon  after  the  conduit 
was  first  put  in  operation,  and  while  there  was  doubtless  more 
or  less  leakage  in  both  the  pipe  and  the  reservoir.  Although 
not  conducted  with  the  utmost  refinement  of  appliances  and 
observation,  they  may  nevertheless  be  regarded  as  fair  ap- 
proximations to  the  truth ;  and  as  they  were  fully  discussed  in 
the  Fifteenth  Annual  Report  of  the  Executive  Board,  made 
in  1891,  their  further  consideration  at  the  present  time  ap- 
pears unnecessary.  The  gaugings  made  since  September 
1890  have  been  conducted  with  every  precaution  to  insure 
accuracy,  and  it  is  confidently  believed  that  the  results  are  as 
correct  as  it  is  now  possible  to  make  such  measurements. 
From  these  figures  it  will  be  noticed  that  a  reduction  in  the 
discharging  capacity  of  the  conduit  has  been  going  on  during 
the  past  twenty  years,  and  that  such  reduction  has  not  yet 
ceased." 

This  review  is  a  little  confusing.     We  find  the  statement 


2O  CARRYING    CAPACITY   OF  METAL    CONDUITS. 

that  "  little  difference  in  the  results  is  found,"  when  the  dis- 
charges are  reduced  to  the  same  heads  acting  on  the  pipe, 
during  the  period  from  Oct.  1890  to  Oct.  1895.  But  from 
the  tabulated  figures,  which  are  not  reduced  to  the  same 
heads  acting  on  the  pipe,  "  it  will  be  noticed  that  a  reduction 
in  the  discharging  capacity  of  the  conduit  has  been  going  on 
during  the  past  twenty  years,  and  that  such  reduction  has  not 
yet  ceased." 

Leaving  the  last  five  years'  gaugings,  as  reported,  out  of 
the  question,  for  want  of  sufficient  data,  for  of  course  the  ob- 
served discharges  must  be  all  reduced  to  the  same  head  to  be 
of  any  value  for  comparison,  we  may  now  discuss  only  the 
1876  reported  gaugings. 

The  first  shock  the  discerning  and  fairly  disposed  hy- 
draulic engineer  will  receive  will  be  to  observe  the  range  of 
reported  results,  all  derived  from  allegedly  "very  accurate 
observation  of  the  rise  of  the  water-surface  in  the  Storage 
Reservoir" ;  being  a  range  from  8  million  to  over  9^  million, 
or  about  16$.  With  some  experience  in  measuring  water, 
the  author  will  venture  to  assert  that  three  gaugings  of  that 
range  of  results  are  not  worthy  of  the  name,  and  should  be 
rejected  as  gaugings  the  moment  they  are  reported.  Unfor- 
tunately, they  have  been  with  us  for  the  past  twenty  years, 
having  come  in  under  a  disguise  and  in  a  questionable 
manner,  so  that  we  must  needs  give  them  some  further  atten- 
tion. 

The  next  point  that  will  attract  notice  is  the  fact  that  the 
heights  of  water  are  not  read  nearer  than  0.05  ft.,  about  %  of 
an  inch.  As  0.05  ft.  is  equivalent  anywhere  from  191,214 
to  217,450  gallons  at  the  close  of  the  several  alleged  gaug- 


THE  ROCHESTER    CRIME.  21 

ings,*  a  discrepancy  of  0.05  in  reading  the  float  could  have 
made,  in  a  1 2-hour  gauging,  an  error  of  nearly  half  a  million 
gallons  in  the  reported  24-hour  result,  and  the  addition  of 
two  such  errors,  one  at  the  start  and  another  at  the  end  of 
the  farcical  performance,  would  have  made  an  error  of  about 
a  million  gallons  per  24  hours. 

The  next  symptom  that  offends  discerning  nostrils  is  the 
circumstance  that  of  four  so-called  gaugings,  only  the  largest, 
based  on  a  12^-hour  run,  viz.  9,292,800  gallons,  should 
have  been  reported  in  the  1877  Report  as  the  "only  one 
careful  measurement "  that  had  been  made ;  and  that  all  the 
others,  including  a  4iJ-hour  run,  which  showed  only  8  million 
gallons,  should  have  been  suppressed. 

Let  us  see  whether  we  cannot  let  Mr.  Nichols  testify. 
From  reliable  authority  the  author  has  it  that  in  the  office 
of  Theo.  Bacon,  esq.,  of  Bacon,  Briggs,  Beckley  &  Bissell, 
of  Rochester,  N.  Y.,  could  have  been  seen,  towards  the  end 
of  1895,  a  stenographer's  copy  of  certain  testimony  given  by 
Mr.  L.  L.  Nichols,  the  Assistant  Engineer  who  is  reported 
to  have  made  the  1876  gaugings,  in  the  case  of  Hiram  Smith 
and  others  against  the  City  of  Rochester,  in  1879,  pages  375 
and  376,  which  reads  as  follows: 

"  Question.  Did  you  ever  make  any  observations  or  tests 
of  the  discharge  of  water  through  the  conduit  to  the  city? 

Answer.      No,  sir. 

Question.  Have  you  merely  assumed  certain  quantities 
from  information  derived  from  others? 

Answer.     Yes,  sir. 

Question.     You  have  never  made  any  estimates  yourself, 

*See  contents  of  Rush  Reservoir,  1877  Rochester  Report,  etc. 


22  CARRYING    CAPACITY   OF  METAL    CONDUITS. 

either  for  the  purpose  of  this  examination  or  for  any  other 
purpose? 

Answer.  I  have  looked  at  the  gauge  at  the  reservoir, 
showing  how  much  was  passing. 

Question.      Passing  into  the  city? 

Answer.     Passing  into  the  Mount  Hope  Reservoir. 

Question.  And  there  is  another  gauge  that  shows  how 
much  passes  into  the  city? 

Answer.     Yes,  sir. 

Question.  And  that  is  the  means  of  ascertaining  the 
amount  of  supply  into  the  city? 

Answer.     Yes,  sir. 

Question.  You  have  never  computed,  at  any  former 
time,  the  capacity  for  passage  of  the  conduit? 

Answer.     Yes,  sir,  I  have  computed  that. 

Question.     When  did  you  make  a  computation  of  that? 

Answer.  I  did  it  at  the  time  the  water-works  were  going 
on. 

Question.     What  did  you  ascertain  to  be  the  capacity? 

Answer.  The  conclusion  I  arrived  at  was  something  over 
7,000,000  gallons  per  day. 

Question.  Did  you  not  at  one  time  reach  a  higher  sum 
than  that? 

Answer.      I  did,  from  an  experiment. 

Question.     When  was  that  experiment  made? 

Answer.  That  was  on  the  first  filling  of  the  Rush 
Reservoir. 

Question.     That  was  when? 

Answer.     In  the  winter  of  1876. 

Question.  Rush  Reservoir  was  not  filled  until  the  whole 
line  was  put  in  operation? 

Answer.     No,  sir. 

Question.  What  did  you  ascertain  from  your  experi- 
ment? 

Answer.     The  flow  through  the  pipe,  for  24  hours,  was 


THE   ROCHESTER    CRIME.  23 

equal  to  9,000,000  gallons,  or  something  in  that  neighbor- 
hood; but  a  trifle  over  9,000,000  gallons. 

Question.  Is  it  the  amount  stated  in  Mr.  Tubbs'  report, 
as  being  9,293,000  gallons  ? 

Answer.      I  think  it  is. 

Testimony  of  Mr.  J.  Nelson  Tubbs  in  the  same  suit 
(direct  examination  by  Mr.  Cogswell) : 

Question.  What  is  the  capacity  of  the  pipes  through 
which  the  water  is  drawn  from  the  lake  to  the  city? 

Answer.  It  is  stated  in  my  report,  as  a  matter  of  experi- 
ment, at  a  little  over  nine  million  gallons,  the  full  capacity." 

This  certainly  does  not  seem  to  indicate  that  Mr.  Nichols 
thought  any  too  highly  of  his  so-called  gaugings,  derived 
from  "very  accurate  observation  of  the  rise  of  water,"  etc., 
and  represented  as  proving  to  some  minds,  so  late  as  1891, 
that  "  at  the  time  the  gaugings  were  made  the  conclusion 
seems  justifiable  that  the  conduit  did  originally  have  a  dis- 
charging capacity  of  about  9,000,000  gallons  per  day." 

Does  it  not  rather  give  color  to  the  rumor  that  Mr. 
Nichols,  who  was  in  January,  1876,  some  65  years  old, 
found  the  work  of  observing  a  float  on  Rush  Hill  in  January 
decidedly  chilling,  and  illicitly  delegated  the  disagreeable  work 
to  the  gatekeeper,  and  that  what  the  gatekeeper  did  and  saw 
in  1876  is  probably  beyond  the  powers  of  anything  but  the 
most  occult  of  sciences  to  determine. 

If  we  make  the  liberal  assumptions  that  the  coefficient  of 
discharge  of  the  new  36"  wrought-iron  pipe  was  94,  that  of 
the  new  24"  wrought-iron  pipe  was  100,  that  of  the  new  24" 
cast-iron  pipe  was  122,  in  1876,  and  that  the  whole  available 
head  on  the  conduit  was  143.8  feet,  a  computation  made  on 


24  CARRYING    CAPACITY  OF  METAL    CONDUITS. 

the  lines  of  Mr.  Hering's  computation  in  Tr.  Am.  Soc.  C.  E., 
1892,  I,  43,  will  give  8,085,424  U.  S.  gallons  per  24  hours 
as  the  discharge  of  the  Rochester  conduit  in  1876;  and  when 
vertical  and  horizontal  curves,  which  were  not  smoothed  off 
very  well,  and  unavoidable  hydraulic  defects  are  taken  into 
consideration,  it  is  fair  to  assume  that  the  conduit  never  car- 
ried so  much  as  8  million  gallons  per  24  hours  under  143.8 
feet  of  total  head. 

What  more  need  be  said  about  those  venerable  fakes  called 
the  Rochester  gaugings  of  1876?  Only  this:  that  it  were 
well  for  hydraulic  engineering  if  they  and  all  trace  of  them 
could  be  extirpated  from  engineering  literature.  The  places 
they  have  occupied  should  be  cleansed  by  the  use  of  acids. 
The  barren  spots  resulting  might  be  left  as  a  warning  to 
future  intending  evil-doers  not  to  indulge  in  careless  state- 
ment, or  worse,  in  official  reports  and  on  matters  of  hydraulic 
engineering. 

It  is  a  well-known  rule  of  law  that  official  documents  are 
prima  facie  evidence.  But  if  the  above  exposition  be  con- 
sidered, and  it  be  further  considered  what  remarkable  action  is 
so  frequently  taken  by  American  municipal  bodies  in  their 
conduct  of  public  works  and  in  their  selection  of  public  ser- 
vants, it  will  probably  be  a  safer  rule  hereafter  to  ignore  the 
rule  of  law  just  quoted,  and  to  be  very  shy  about  accepting 
statements  of  engineering  data  taken  from  American  city 
engineering  literature.  There  is  good  in  it,  and  the  indiffer- 
ent ;  unfortunately,  there  is  also  the  pestilential  and  the  off- 
spring of  the  Evil  One. 


CHAPTER    IV. 

EXPERIMENTS   ON    RIVETED    CONDUITS,   MOSTLY 

MADE   SUBSEQUENT  TO   THE   ROCHESTER 

EXPOSURE   OF   1890. 

"  So  eine  Arbeit  wird  eigentlich  nie  fertig." 

— GOETHE,  1787.     Letter. 
(A  work  of  this  sort  maybe  said  never  to  be  finished.) 

44  The  book  of  Nature  is  that  which  the  physician 
(student)  must  read  ;  and  to  do  so  he  must  walk  over 
the  leaves." — PARACELSUS,  1490-1541. 

Mr.  GEO.  W.  RAFTER,  M.  Am.  Soc.  C.  E.,  has  described 
the  hubbub  pervading  the  city  of  Rochester  in  the  summer 
of  1890,  when  the  conduit,  reported  as  carrying  gj-  million 
gallons  per  24  hours  in  1876,  failed  to  deliver  so  much  as  7 
million  gallons  per  day  that  summer,  and  was  gauged  by  him, 
then  in  charge  of  the  Rochester  Water-works,  for  the  first  time 
since  it  had  been  built,  strictly  speaking.  He  first  showed  the 
reason  why  the  conduit  did  not — that  is  to  say,  why  it  could 
not — supply  the  city,  and  instituted  measures  for  restricting 
the  consumption  of  the  city ;  all  of  which  is  recorded  in  the 
two  papers  by  Mr.  Rafter,  Tr.  Am.  Soc.  C.  E.,  1892,  I. 
But  the  exposure  made  to  the  citizens  of  Rochester  was  no 
less  an  exposure  made  to  engineers  and  others  interested  in 
the  carrying  capacity  of  riveted  pipe,  the  world  over,  and 
many  experiments  have  no  doubt  been  made  on  riveted  con- 

25 


26  CARRYING    CAPACITY  OF  METAL    CONDUITS. 

duits  since  that  time,  which  but  for  it  might  or  would  have 
been  deemed  unnecessary.  These  and  a  few  of  the  older 
ones — that  is  to  say,  all  attainable  to  the  author — upon  riveted 
conduits,  from  I  foot  diameter  upwards,  and  up  to  6  feet  per 
second  of  velocity  through  them,  to  the  number  of  115,  have 
been  reduced  to  the  same  measures,  and  are  now  submitted. 
Among  them  are  84  made  on  the  conduits  of  the  East  Jersey 
Water  Company  and  now  for  the  first  time  published. 

REMARKS    UPON    THE   CONDUITS   REFERRED   TO    IN   TABLE   I. 

The  first  99  numbers  have  been  reserved  for  ex- 
periments on  the  48"  steel  conduit  No.  I  of  the  East  Jersey 
Water  Company.  The  laying  of  this  conduit  was  com- 
menced September  20,  1890;  completed  December  30,  1891 ; 
and  the  conduit  put  into  use  April  26,  1892.  It  is  composed 
of  alternate  large  and  small  sections  or  courses,  the  common 
form  of  construction,  which  for  obvious  reasons  maybe  called 
a  pipe  with  cylinder-joints.  It  is  dipped  in  asphalt.  Verti- 
cal and  horizontal  curves  are  well  made,  none  sharper  than  a 
10°  curve,  574  feet  radius,  and  most  of  them  less  than  that. 
Only  four  kinds  of  curves  were  used:  2^°,  5°,  /j-0,  and  10° 
curves. *  From  the  up-stream  end  for  5  miles  the  profile  is 
much  broken,  the  pipe  going  up  and  down,  hill  after  hill.  It 
touches  the  hydraulic  gradient  seven  times  in  this  space  of  5 
miles,  excluding  the  point  of  beginning,  which  last  is  usually 
under  4  or  5  feet,  or  more,  of  head.  This  brings  the  conduit 
to  Pompton  Notch.  For  the  remaining  16  miles  the  profile 

*  Journal  New  England  Water-works  Association,  Sept.  1893,  and 
Engineering  News,  June  15,  July  6  and  13,  1893.  Also  Foreign  Abstracts, 
Inst.  C.  E.,  vol.  114. 


EXPERIMENTS   ON  RIVETED    CONDUITS. 

TABLE   I. 

EXPERIMENTS   ON   CONDUITS. 


1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

No. 

Date. 

Location, 
Station  to  Station. 

Length 
in 
Feet. 

Thickness, 

u 
B 

<i, 

"o<£ 

its 

5 

3  . 

aS 

in 

l£ 
a 

£ 
7,8 

•Si! 

18. 

> 

•a 

|£ 

*o  2 

V-i 

o  ^ 

1  Comparative 
Weight. 

1  Coefficient  c  in 

•v  =  c  \/rs. 

Per  Cent  of 
Different 
Thickness  of 
Metal. 

i" 

&" 

t" 

48"  CONDUIT,  No.  1. 

CYLINDER-JOINTS. 


1892 

I 

April  10  ... 

11+50  to  257+80 

24,630 

100 

0 

o 

3.96 

63.2 

5-13 

2.07 

B 

2 

"      ii... 

"        "        " 

24,630 

IOO 

0 

0 

3.96 

65.1 

5-29 

2.13 

B 

3 

"      16.... 

"          '        " 

24,630 

100 

0 

o 

3.96 

66.1 

5-37 

2.25 

B 

4 

"      18... 

it                   I                11 

24,630 

IOO 

0 

0 

3.96 

66.2 

5-38 

2.24 

B 

5 

19   ... 

"             '           " 

24,630 

IOO 

o 

o 

3.96 

66.2 

5.38 

2.24 

B 

6 

"      20  ... 

l<             i           it 

24,630 

IOO 

0 

0 

3.96 

66.6 

5-41 

2.28 

B 

1896 

28 

Jan.      5... 

14                 I              tt 

24,630 

IOO 

0 

o 

3.96 

54-3 

4.41 

2.23 

B 

29 

"      18.... 

"                '              " 

24,630 

IOO 

o 

o 

3.96 

54-9 

4.46 

2.24 

A 

31 

Mar.  26.... 

114-50     *  116+57 

10,507 

100 

0 

o 

3-96 

57-o 

4-63 

2.05 

A 

S2 

"     26.... 

116+57     '  257+80 

i4>123 

IOO 

o 

0 

3-96 

57-o 

4-63 

2-34 

A 

34 

July    29  ... 

11+50    "  257+80 

24,630 

IOO 

0 

o 

3-96 

36.05 

2-93 

1.02 

A 

35 

Aug.  20.... 

"         "         '* 

24,630 

IOO 

0 

o 

3-96 

36.65 

2.98 

1.03 

A 

1892 

7 

April  19  

309+  o    "  923+55 

6i,455 

34 

19 

47 

3-945 

66.6 

5-45 

2.47 

A 

1896 

20 

Jan.    13  

"         "         " 

6i,455 

34 

19 

47 

3-945 

54-7 

4-47 

I.9I 

A 

40 

Sept.  23  ... 

"         "         " 

6i.455 

34 

*9 

47 

3-945 

36.4 

2.98 

0.80 

A 

41 

Oct.    20  

it                 it                 it 

6i,455 

34 

19 

47 

3-945 

53-7 

4-39 

1.81 

A 

3° 

Feb.     6... 

280+  o    "1110+  o 

83,000 

36 

22 

42 

3-95 

54-6 

4.46 

1.90 

D 

33 

May    31..  . 

283+  o    "  923+55 

64,055 

34 

19 

47 

3-95 

70.6 

5-77 

3.12 

A 

1892 

8 

July    16.  ... 

719+40  "1052+96 

33,356 

70 

10 

20 

3-95 

4i-3 

3.36 

0.94 

B 

9 

"      18.... 

tk            it            it 

33,356 

70 

10 

20 

3-95 

44-5 

3-62 

i  .00 

B 

12 

Sept.    5  .... 

"          "          " 

33,356 

70 

IO 

20 

3-95 

32.0 

2.61 

0.51 

B 

10 

July    19  

309+  o    "1052+96 

74,396 

38 

19 

43 

3-95 

44-5 

3-64 

1.07 

B 

ii 

Sept.    5.... 

309+  o    "  575+87 

26^687 

12 

IO 

78 

3-94 

32-0 

2.62 

0.65 

B 

1893 

13 

Oct.        2.... 

It          11         It 

26,687 

12 

IO 

78 

3-94 

3T'7 

2-59 

0.69 

B 

14 

3.  ... 

"          "          " 

26,687 

12 

10 

78 

3-94 

34-3 

2.81 

0.82 

B 

15 

"          12     ... 

II              II              «i 

26,687 

12 

IO 

78 

3-94 

31-4 

2-57 

0.68 

B 

1894 

16 

Mar.  22     .  . 

"        "        " 

26,687 

2 

10 

78 

3-94 

25-05 

2.05 

0.40 

B 

17 

"         22       . 

H                 (t                 kl 

26,687 

2 

10 

78 

3-94 

37-^5 

3-°5 

0.94 

B 

18 

Nov.  17.... 

n            ((            (t 

26,687 

2 

10 

78 

3-94 

43-6 

3-57 

1.  16 

B 

1896 

42 

Sept.  23  ... 

"            *'            «« 

26.687 

2 

IO 

78 

3-94 

36.4 

2.98 

0.86 

A 

J9 

Jan.    13..,. 

309+  o    ",  575+10 

26.610 

2 

IO 

78 

3-94 

54  7 

4.48 

1.98 

A 

43 

Oct.    20.... 

26,610 

2 

IO 

78 

3  94 

53-7 

4.40 

2.03 

A 

1894 

21 

Vov    17   .  . 

309+  o    "1117+  o 

80,800 

36 

22 

42 

3-95 

43-6 

3-56 

1.  12 

A 

1896 

22 

Jan.    13... 

575+10    "  923+55 

34,845 

52 

25 

23 

3-95 

54-7 

4-46 

1.83 

A 

36 

Aug.  19   ... 

"         "         " 

34.845 

5? 

25 

23 

3-95 

73-5 

6.01 

3.  16 

B 

37 

21      .  . 

K                 il                 it 

34,845 

52 

25 

23 

3-95 

74-0 

6.04 

3-i5 

A 

38 

"      25    .. 

ii                 ii                 «» 

34845 

52 

25 

23 

3-95 

74  3 

6.06 

3.18 

A 

39 

"      26    ... 

li                 it                 .t 

34,845 

S2 

25 

23 

3-95 

74.1 

6.04 

3.T6 

A 

44 

Sept.  23.... 

"•'                 "                 " 

34.845 

52 

25 

23 

3-95 

36.4 

2.97 

0.37 

A 

45 

Oct     20 

34,845 

52 

25 

23 

3-95 

53-7 

4-38 

1.71 

A 

2%  CARRYING    CAPACITY  OF  METAL    CONDUITS. 

EXPERIMENTS   ON   CONDUITS. 
48"  CONDUIT,  No.  I.— Continued. 


1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

%  Thickness. 

Head 

No. 

Date. 

Location. 

Length 

Dia. 

Quan. 

Vel. 

per 

Wt. 

c 

}" 

A" 

t" 

ft. 

23 
24 

Oct.     B.... 
5  

719+40  to  923+55 

20,415 
20,415 

79 
79 

3 

3 

18 
18 

3-95 
3-95 

3T-7 

2.58 
2.58 

o-45 
0.56 

B 
B 

25 

ii   ... 

ii       ii        ii 

20,415 

79 

3 

18 

3-95 

40.2 

3-27 

0.91 

(J 

26 
27 

Mar.  26.... 
Nov.  17  — 

719+40    "  1117+0 

20,415 
39,76o 

29 
62 

3 

18 

21 

3-95 
3-95 

25.0 
43-6 

2.04 

3-55 

o-33 
i.  08 

B 
A 

36"  CONDUIT. 
CYLINDER-JOINTS. 

101 

1892 
April  21  

J  Gate-house  to  ) 
|     gate-house    j 

25,000 

100 

o 

0 

3.00 

40.3 

5-7° 

2.86 

C 

102 

1         21  

do. 

25,000 

IOO 

o 

o 

3.00 

33-6 

4-75 

2-35 

c 

I03 

"         21  

do. 

25,000 

TOO 

o 

0 

3.00 

26.6 

3-76 

i-59 

c 

104 

•         21     .. 

do. 

25,000 

IOO 

o 

o 

3.00 

19.7 

2.79 

0.97 

c 

!°5 

"        21  .... 

do. 

25.000 

IOO 

o 

o 

3-oo 

13.2 

1.87 

0-55 

c 

106 

"        21  

do. 

25,000 

IOO 

o 

0 

3.00 

7-9 

I.  12 

O.2O 

c 

107 

"        21.... 

do. 

25,000 

IOO 

o 

o 

3.00 

4.0 

0.56 

0.04 

c 

l896 

108 

Feb.     6.... 

1110+30  101357+50 

24,720 

IOO 

0 

0 

3-00 

34-8 

4-93 

2.87 

A 

42''  KEARNEY  EXTENSION. 

TAPER-JOINTS. 


1896 

150 

Jan.  21  

4-^11  to  59+85 

5,574 

23 

55 

22 

3-50 

17.4 

1.81 

0-33 

B 

151 

'   25  ... 

5,574 

23 

55 

22 

3.50 

*7-3 

i.  80 

0.40 

B 

*52 

'  25.... 

5,574 

23 

55 

22 

3-50 

19-55 

2  04 

0.32 

B 

*53 

27  .... 

5,574 

23 

55 

22 

3-50 

34-7 

3-6i 

«.*3 

B 

*54 

27  — 

5,574 

23 

55 

22 

3-50 

31-1 

3-23 

1.05 

B 

155 

'  29  ... 

5,574 

23 

55 

22 

3-50 

29.7 

3-09 

0.80 

B 

156 

29  ... 

5-574 

23 

55 

22 

3-50 

35-2 

3-66 

I  .  12 

B 

157 

'   3°-  • 

5,574 

23 

55 

22 

3-50 

J7-5 

1.82 

0-53 

B 

158 

30  .... 

5,574 

23 

55 

22 

3-50 

19.8 

2.06 

0.60 

B 

159 

Nov.  18.... 

5-574 

23 

55 

22 

3-5° 

41.0 

4  26 

I.  80 

A 

48"  CONDUIT,  No.  2. 

TAPER  JOINTS. 


1896 

200 

June  19  

12+50  to  258-1-98 

24,648 

99 

o 

3.96 

57-7 

4.69 

1.96 

B 

2OI 

July   29.... 

i          ii 

24,648 

99 

o 

3-96 

36.8 

2.  99 

0.89 

A 

202 

Aug.  13... 

i          (t 

24,648 

99 

0 

3-96 

37-1 

3.01 

0.90 

A 

203 

"        20.... 

i          ii 

24,648 

99 

o 

3-96 

37-25 

3-°3 

0.89 

A 

204 

Oct.      22  

i          ti 

24,648 

99 

o 

3.96 

48.0 

3-9<> 

1.40 

A 

IS 

Sept.  24  '.'.'.'. 

i          ti 

24,648 
24,648 

99 
99 

o 
o 

3-96 
3-96 

56-7 
57-95 

4.61 

4.71 

1.99 
2.04 

A 
B 

EXPERIMENTS   ON  RIVETED    CONDUITS. 


EXPERIMENTS    ON    CONDUITS. 
42"  CONDUIT,  No.  2. 

TAPER-JOINTS. 


1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

%  Thickness. 

Head 

No. 

Date. 

Location. 

Length 

Dia. 

Quan 

Vel. 

per 

IOOO 

Wt. 

c 

i" 

&" 

1" 

ft. 

1896 

257 

2S8 

Sept.    9.... 

'         10     .. 

611+01  to  1109+34 
469-4-07 

49,833 
64,027 

71 
67 

38 

32 

3-5o 
3-50 

16.8 
13-45 

I'll 

0.32 

o.  19 

B 
B 

259 

ii  

297+95 

8i,i39 

54 

45 

3-50 

21.3 

2.21 

0.52 

B 

v6o 

18  ... 

81,139 

54 

45 

3-5° 

29.0 

3.02 

o-93 

B 

261 

19  

it                   <« 

81,139 

54 

45 

3-5° 

37-5 

3-90 

1.45 

B 

762 

21  

81,139 

54 

45 

3-50 

45-1 

4.6q 

2.14 

C 

26s 

23  

" 

81,139 

54 

45 

3-50 

44-15 

4-59 

2.04 

B 

264 
261; 

Oct.    15.... 
16.  .  .  . 

81,139 
81,139 

54 
54 

45 

4.5 

3-50 
3-50 

45-25 
41-3 

4.70 
4.29 

2.18 

i.  80 

A 
A 

266 

17  

81,139 

54 

45 

3  '5° 

34-95 

3.63 

J-S1 

A 

267 

19  .. 

81,139 

54 

45 

3-50 

28.0 

2.91 

0.85 

A 

268 

20  .... 

81,139 

54 

45 

3-5° 

20.25 
48  o 

2.10 

o-47 

A 
^ 

T 
269 

"        20    .. 

611+01  " 

49,833 

7i 

38 

3-5° 
3-5° 

9-25 

0.96 

0.907 

A 

See  "  Hydraulics,"  by  HAMILTON  SMITH,  Jr. 

1883  and  1884. 


1886  ;  also  Tr.  Am.  Soc.  C.E. 


12,798 

2.40 

50. 

20.14 

66.72 

A 

1873-1879... 

California 

to 

0.165  to  0.065 

to 

to 

to 

to 

to 

684.8 

0.91 

3-07 

4.38 

6.68 

B 

TAPER-JOINTS. 


344 

1876 
October 

North  Bloomfield, 
Cal. 

73i 

0.065  to  0.083 

O.QI 

3-07 

4.71 

8.50 

B 

107. 

343 

" 

do. 

721 

'       "      " 

O.Qt 

3-97 

6.09 

'3-34 

B 

no. 

348 
347 

** 

do. 

718 
709 

«      » 

i.  06 

4.02 

6.!0 

4-59 
6.96 

14.28 

B 

109. 
"3- 

354 

" 

do. 

720 

1.23 

5.20 

4-38 

5-02 

B 

in. 

353 

do. 

712 

1.23 

8.13 

6.84 

10.97 

B 

117. 

16"  CONDUIT  AT  ASTORIA  CITY.     (See  Tr.  Am.  Soc.  C.  E.,  April  1896.) 

CYLINDER-JOINTS. 


No. 

No. 

1895 

10 

12 

Dec 

16416  38 

6  37 

A   eg 

R 

108"  CONDUIT  AT  HOLYOKE.     (See  Tr.  Am.  Soc.  C.  E.,  Nov.  1887.) 

CYLINDER-JOINTS.      3    PLATES    PER   CIRCLE.    " 


1887 

October 

152  88 

i" 

8  615 

R 

152  88 

8  615 

R 

116  6 

(i 

152  88 

8  615 

R 

504 

505 

506 
507 
508 
509 

u 



152.88 
152.88 
152.88 
152.88 
152.88 
152.88 

100 
100 
100 
100 
100 
TOO 

.'.'.'. 

8.615 
8.615 
8.615 
8.615 
8.615 
8.615 

'.'.'.'.'.'. 

2.0 
2-5 

3-° 
3-5 
4.0 
4-5 

•1532 
.2421 
•3520 
.4902 
.6520 
.8350 

B 

B 
B 
B 
B 
B 

110.3 
I08  8 
107.7 
106.9 
106.2 
105.6 

CARRYING    CAPACITY  OF  METAL    CONDUITS. 


EXPERIMENTS  ON   CONDUITS. 

DARCY.  "Conduite  No.  10,"  Mouvement  de  1'Eau  dans  les  Tuyaux,  1857. 
(See  also  HAMILTON  SMITH'S  "  Hydraulics,"  p.  226.) 

SCREW-JOINTS. 


1 

2 

3 

4 

0 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

Wt. 

13 

c 

No. 

Date. 

Location. 

Length 

%  Thickness. 

Dia. 

Quan 

Vel. 

Head 
per 

IOOO 

ft. 

60  1 
60? 
603 
604 
605 

1850 

Paris 

365-5 

.... 

(?) 

o-935 

1.30 
2.78 
3-87 
4.90 
6.67 

o-7 

2-5 

4-3 
6.8 

11.9 

B 
B 
B 
B 
B 

101.3 
114.0 

121  .6 

122.5 
126.5 

0615.5 

0-935 
0-935 

365-5 

GEO.  W.  RAFTER,  July  and  August,  1890,  and  EMIL  KUICHLING,  1891, 

and  subsequently. 

ROCHESTER,  N.  Y.,  CONDUITS. 

CYLINDER-JOINTS. 


7oi 

1890 
July  &  Aug. 

j  Conduit  used  | 
(     since  1876     ) 

50,819 

3/16" 
i  3/i6"and  } 

3-00 

10.43 

i-47 

o-45 

C 

80.4 

702 

It        (I         It 

do. 

1,901 

I   eac4h(?)   i 

2.OO 

10.43 

3-32 

3-83 

c 

76.0 

7°3 

U       11        U 

do. 

10,541 

do. 

2.00 

10.43 

3-32 

3.58 

c 

78-5 

1891 

(Oct.  14  ) 

7o4 

-  3 

do. 

3.327 

do. 

2.00 

10.52 

3-35 

3-46 

B 

80.5 

705 

do. 

do. 

50,820 

3/16" 

3-00 

10.52 

1.49 

o-43 

B 

83.0 

7o6 

1895 
Oct.     4  

{Conduit  com-  ) 
pleted  Aug.  v 

91,641 

71      24        5 

3-17 

25.78 

3-27 

0.99 

A 

116.6 

24,  1894          ) 

707 

Dec.  23  ... 

do. 

91,641 

7i      24        5 

3-17 

25-45 

3-23 

I.  01 

A 

114.0 

708 

Oct.    17  ... 

do. 

45,400 

29      28      43 

3-17 

3°-53 

3-88 

i-59 

A 

109.3 

709 

"      26... 

do. 

45,400 

29      28      43 

30.78 

3-91 

x.6i 

A 

109.3 

710 

Nov.     7  ... 

do. 

45,400 

29      28      43 

3-17 

30-74 

3  90 

1.62 

A 

109.1 

In  the  above  table, 

A  denotes  experiments  in  which  all  the  conditions  were  favorable,  and 
all  the  observations  were  complete,  and  in  which  no  disturbing  causes  were 
known  or  suspected. 

B  denotes  good  experiments;  they  may  be  just  as  good  as  those  marked 
A,  but  the  observations  were  not  so  complete,  or  were  fewer  in  number. 

C  denotes  experiments  in  which  disturbing  causes  were  known  to  exist, 
which  may  have  vitiated  the  results. 

D  denotes  experiments  of  little  value,  depending  on  a  few  observations, 
or  otherwise  defective. 


EXPERIMENTS   ON  RIVETED    CONDUITS.  31 

is  much  less  broken,  and  the  conduit  does  not  again  touch 
the  hydraulic  gradient.  On  this  length  of  16  miles  it  is  in 
effect  one  long  "  inverted  siphon,"  although  it  crosses  two 
marked  high  hills. 

As  the  hydraulic  gradient  commences  at  the  level  of  the 
top  of  the  pipe  at  the  intake,  the  pipe  was  run  with  a  head 
on  all  the  points  where  it  touches  the  theoretical  hydraulic 
gradient,  between  the  intake  and  Pompton  Notch,  except  on 
the  last  stretch  of  hydraulic  gradient,  in  the  Notch  itself. 
Owing,  no  doubt,  to  the  well-known  fact  that  a  pipe  will  dis- 
charge more  when  filled  up  to  about  0.95  of  its  diameter  than 
when  full,  other  things  being  equal — that  is  to  say,  will  dis- 
charge a  given  quantity  of  water  easier,  or,  in  other  words, 
with  less  work,  when  0.95  full  than  when  full — this  length  in 
Pompton  Notch  was  never  quite  full  until  after  May  30,  1896. 
On  that  date,  48"  conduit  No.  2,  running  parallel  with  and 
.alongside  of  conduit  No.  i,  from  the  intake  to  Pompton 
Notch,  was  completed,  and  was  immediately  turned  into  No. 
i  at  Pompton  Notch.  This  put  a  head  on  No.  I  at  the 
Notch,  and  naturally  filled  it,  up-stream  from  the  Notch.  It 
also  increased  the  discharge  of  No.  I  down-stream  from  the 
Notch,  to  delivery  at  Belleville;  the  object  of  the  manoeuvre 
described. 

The  rivet-heads,  whether  exterior  or  interior,  were  all 
well-formed.  Shop-rivets  had  been  driven  with  a  hydraulic 
riveter ;  field-rivets  with  a  cup,  or  set.  All  plate-edges  had 
been  bevel-planed.  The  author  knows  no  reason  why  this 
conduit  should  not  even  now  be  held  to  conform  to  the  Ham- 
ilton Smith  specifications  for  pipe  to  which  was  said  to  be 
applicable  the  table  on  p.  271  of  "  Hydraulics." 


32  CARRYING    CAPACITY  OF  METAL    CONDUITS. 

"The  given  values  of  c  can,  in  our  judgment,  be  used, 
with  entire  safety  for  computing  the  flow  of  reasonably  clean 
water,  either  through  well-made  cast-iron  pipes,  or  through 
riveted  sheet-iron  or  steel  pipes,  where  the  rivet-heads  do  not 
form  quite  a  notable  portion  of  the  area.  The  pipes  must 
be  properly  coated  with  a  varnish  of  asphaltum  and  coal- 
tar,  or  some  other  preparation  equally  good ;  the  joints 
must  be  smoothly  united,  and  any  curves  must  be  well 
rounded.  These  remarks  apply  to  diameters  from  I  to  8." 

Nos.  100  to  149  refer  to  the  $6"  conduit  of  the  East 
Jersey  Water  Company  running  from  Belleville  to  South 
Orange  Avenue.  The  remarks  above  made  respecting  con- 
struction of  the  48"  conduit  No.  I  apply  to  this  $6"  conduit 
also.  It  was  first  filled  with  water  February  15,  1892.  In 
profile  it  is  a  long  inverted  siphon,  about  5  miles  long,  with 
only  one  sharp  valley  to  cross.  Most  of  it  being  laid  in  city 
streets,  the  horizontal  curves  have  a  smaller  radius  than  has 
been  hitherto  spoken  of.  There  are  two  curves  of  83  feet 
radius,  one  of  75  feet,  two  of  65  feet,  and  one  of  41  feet 
radius,  but  they  are  all  well  rounded  and  smoothly  finished. 

Nos.  150  to  199  refer  to  what  is  called  the  "Kearney 
Extension  "  of  the  East  Jersey  Water  Company,  a  42"  riveted 
steel  conduit  which  runs  from  Belleville  across  the  Passaic 
River  to  Kearney.  In  profile  it  is  a  single  inverted  siphon, 
with  a  few  horizontal  curves.  It  is  about  9000  feet  long,  of 
which  6000  feet  are  on  the  Belleville  side  of  the  river.  The 
river  is  crossed  by  seven  parallel  lines  of  16"  lap- welded, 
screw-jointed,  steel  pipes,  hauled  across  on  the  bottom  of  the 
river,  in  a  trench  dredged  for  the  purpose.  The  experiments 


PLATE  I. 


[Facing page 


EXPERIMENTS   ON  RIVETED    CONDUITS.  33 

reported  were  all  made  on  the   Belleville  side  of  the  river, 
and  up-stream  from  the  intake  of  the  seven  16"  pipes. 

This  42"  conduit  is  not  built  with  cylinder-joints.  In- 
stead was  used  the  form  of  joint  sometimes  called  a  "  stove- 
pipe "  joint,  in  which  the  down-stream  small  end  of  each  sec- 
tion, or  course,  is  fitted  into  the  up-stream  large  end  of  the 
succeeding  section.  This  form  will  here  be  called  a  "  taper- 
joint,"  which  is  the  shop-name  for  such  work.  In  other  re- 
spects, the  remarks  already  made  concerning  methods  of  con- 
struction of  riveted  conduits  will  apply  to  the  42"  Kearney 
Extension  conduit  as  well.  The  coating  of  this  conduit, 
which  was  laid  in  the  late  fall  and  winter,  was  unusually 
smooth.  It  was  put  into  use  January  10,  1896. 

Nos.  200  to  299  refer  to  conduit  No.  2  of  the  East  Jersey 
Water  Company,  running  parallel  with  and  alongside  of  con- 
duit No.  i.  28,200  feet  are  48"  conduit,  from  the  intake  to 
Pompton  Notch,  being  Nos.  200  to  249 ;  and  the  remainder, 
82,800  feet,  is  a  42"  conduit,  being  Nos.  250  to  299.  Both 
the  48"  and  the  42"  parts  of  conduit  No.  2  are  built  with 
taper-joints.  Pipe-laying  commenced  in  March  1896,  three 
canal  crossings  being  laid  that  month;  it  was  completed,  and 
the  conduit  put  into  use  to  Pompton  Notch,  on  May  30, 
1896;  and  completed  to  Belleville,  and  put  into  use  for  its 
entire  length,  on  September  30,  1896. 

Nos.  300  to  399  refer  to  conduit  experiments  described  in 
Hamilton  Smith's  "  Hydraulics."  They  bear  the  same  num- 
bers here  that  they  do  in  that  treatise.  These  are  taper- 
joint  riveted  pipe,  dipped  in  asphalt,  and  as  good  as  new. 

Nos.  400  to  499  have  been  reserved  for  recent  experi- 
ments. Only  one  has  been  found  in  engineering  literature 


34  CARRYING    CAPACITY  OF  METAL    CONDUITS. 

devoid  of  stated  defects :  on  the  pipe  at  Astoria,  Oregon,  see 
Tr.  Am.  Soc.  C.  E.,  1896,  I,  226.  This  is  a  new  16"  pipe, 
with  cylinder-joints,  dipped  in  asphalt. 

Nos.  500  to  599  refer  to  the  author's  test  of  a  io8-inch 
trunk  in  Holyoke,  Mass.  See  Tr.  Am.  Soc.  C.  E.,  Novem- 
ber 1887.  This  wrought-iron  pipe  has  cylinder-joints,  and 
each  course  is  composed  of  three  plates.  It  had  little,  if  any, 
of  the  original  paint-coating  left  when  tested.  At  date  of 
testing  it  had  been  in  use  some  five  years,  and  was  rather 
rusty  inside,  although  not  affected  with  the  tubercular  disease 
which  is  the  bane  of  cast-iron  pipes. 

Nos.  600  to  699  refer  to  experiments  on  a  nj-inch 
riveted  pipe  detailed  in  Darcy,  "  Mouvement  de  1'eau  dans 
les  tuyaux  "  (Paris,  1857).  It  is  not  recorded  whether  this 
pipe  was  corroded,  or  how  much,  or  what  the  form  of  the 
joints  was,  except  that  they  were  screw-joints.  Presumably 
the  pipe  was  in  good  condition,  and  smooth  at  the  joints.  * 

Nos.  700  to  799  refer  to  experiments  made  on  Rochester 
conduits  Nos.  I  and  2. 

No.  I  Rochester  Conduit,  completed  in  January  1876,  is 
a  cylinder-jointed  wrought-iron  pipe.  When  laid  it  was 
dipped  in  asphalt,  and  in  1891  and  1892  was  in  excellent 
condition  on  the  exterior.  Two  20"  disks  cut  out  of  the 
pipe  at  that  time  showed  the  interior  also  to  be  in  excellent 
condition.  Judging  by  the  appearance  of  these  two  sections, 
the  asphalt  coating  has  a  great  many  wrinkles  in  it. 

Rochester  Conduit    No.   2    is  a  cylinder-jointed,   riveted 


*  Pipes  and  joints  of  this  sort  are  described  by  Darcy  in  his  treatise  on 
"  Les  Fontaines  publiques  de  la  ville  de  Dijon  "  (1856),  p.  632,  which  were 
presumably  the  same. 


EXPERIMENTS   ON  RIVETED    CONDUITS.  35 

steel  pipe,  and  was  completed  August  24,  1894.  The  Janu- 
ary 1896  report  of  the  Chief  Engineer  of  Water-works, 
Rochester,  N.  Y.,  Mr.  Emil  Kuichling,  contains  a  full  de- 
scription of  it. 


OF  THH 

UNIVERSITY 


CHAPTER  V. 

Q  AND   k. 

"  quid  nobis  certius  ipsis 

Sens-ibus  esse  potest,  quo  vera  ac  falsa  notemus  ?"  , 
—LUCRETIUS,  99-55  B.C.     De  Natura  rerum,  Lib.  I.  703. 
(What  better  than  the  senses  can  enable  us  to 
istinguish  the  false  from  the  true  ?) 

"  Truth  is  truth, 
To  the  end  of  reckoning." 
— Measure  for  Measure,  Act  V.,  Sc.   I. 

THE  determination  of  the  quantity  flowing  through  a  pipe 
has  ordinarily  been  effected  in  many  ways,  and  it  will  be 
proper  to  review  the  115  experiments  above  given,  with 
respect  to  the  method  used  in  each  of  them  to  measure  the 
quantity  of  water  flowing  through  the  pipe.  A  similar  review 
must  also  be  given  of  the  measurements  of  h,  or  of  the  total 
head  consumed  on  the  length  of  pipe  under  experiment  to 
overcome  resistances  to  flow,  commonly,  though  incorrectly, 
called  friction. 

Nos.  1-99  and  1 50-299  had  Q  measured  with  a  Venturi 
meter;  Nos.  100-149,  over  an  imperfect  weir;  Nos.  300— 
399,  over  weirs  described  in  Hamilton  Smith's  "  Hydraulics," 
Chap.  X;  Nos.  500-599,  over  an  accurate  weir  in  the  Hoi- 
yoke  Testing-flume ;  seeTr.  Am.  Soc.  C.  E.,  Nov.  1887;  and 

36 


Q  AND  h.  37 

Nos.  401,  600-699,  and  700-799  had  Q  measured  in  tanks  or 
reservoirs. 

This  art  of  measuring  water  is  one  that  is  thoroughly 
understood  by  comparatively  few,  even  among  engineers, 
although  the  present  age  is  making  rapid  advances  in  this  line 
as  in  others,  more  engineers  are  practising  it,  and  much  more 
attention  is  now  bestowed  upon  the  subject  in  schools  than 
formerly,  thanks  to  engineering  and  hydraulic  laboratories  or 
observatories.  The  author  will  refer  in  this  connection  to  his 
lecture  on  "  Measuring  Water"  delivered  before  the  students 
of  the  Rensselaer  Polytechnic  Institute  of  Troy,  N.  Y.,  Jan- 
uary 25,  1895,  and  printed  in  The  Polytechnic  of  that  school, 
March  23,  1895.  Also  reprinted  by  the  Builders'  Iron  Foun- 
dry of  Providence,  R.  I.  It  is  again  reprinted  in  the  Ap- 
pendix, Note  C. 

As  the  oldest  and  simplest  method,  and  the  one  lying  at 
the  foundation  of  all  the  others,  we  may  first  examine  the 
measurements  made  in  tanks  or  reservoirs.  At  first  thought 
it  might  seem  that  such  a  measurement  must  of  necessity  be 
absolutely  correct,  but  reflection  will  at  once  show  that  no 
measurements  whatever  are  absolutely  correct,  least  of  all 
those  in  which  are  involved  the  three  dimensions  of  length, 
breadth,  and  thickness,  together  with  a  fourth  dimension,  that 
of  time.  The  accuracy  of  any  simple  measurement  will  always 
depend  on  the  accuracy  of  the  scale,  or  instrument,  with  which 
the  measurement  is  made,  and  also  on  the  skill  of  the  opera- 
tor. In  this  way  a  reservoir  measurement,  as  we  have  seen, 
when  conducted  by  a  careless  engineer,  or  by  an  incompetent 
gatekeeper,  may  be  little  better  than  a  guess,  while  the  com- 
,plex  operation  of  conducting  a  weir-gauging  can,  by  perfec- 


38  CARRYING    CAPACITY  OF  METAL    CONDUITS. 

tion  of  apparatus  and  skill  of  the  operator,  be  made  to  result 
in  a  measurement  that  will  be  true  within  ±  i  or  2  per 
cent. 

No  precise  details  are  given,  in  the  source  quoted,  of  the 
Astoria  gaugings  for  No.  401,  but  there  is  no  reason  apparent 
for  questioning  them.  Engineers  have  not  yet  got  into  the 
habit,  like  astronomers,  of  attaching  a  ±  sign  to  important 
data,  with  a  numeral  indicating  the  limits  within  which  the 
measurement  is  probably  correct.  In  default  of  such  an  esti- 
mate of  the  accuracy  of  the  present  gauging  by  the  engineer 
who  conducted  it,  it  has  been  marked  B. 

Q  of  Nos.  600-699  may  be  considered  as  having  been 
accurately  measured  in  tanks  of  moderate  dimensions. 

Nos.  700-799  were  measured  in  a  reservoir  in  which  o.  I 
ft.  was  equivalent  to  some  400,000  gallons.  Nos.  701-703  are 
based  on  an  average  of  four  gaugings,  three  of  which  were  of  12 
hours'  and  one  of  24  hours'  duration.  Mr.  Rafter  claims  them 
to  be  correct  within  2  or  3  per  cent,  which  may  readily  be 
allowed.  Nos.  704-710  are  based  on  gaugings  of  from  5  to  8 
hours'  duration.  Heights  of  reservoir-surface  were  measured 
with  a  hook-gauge.  That  the  results  are  stated  in  foot 
measure  to  five  places  of  decimals  should  delude  nobody.  A 
hook-gauge  will  not  measure  water-heights  so  that  the  fourth 
place  of  decimals  of  foot-measure  can  be  read  with  certainty, 
and  the  fifth  place  is  beyond  its  ken.  Usually  the  fourth  place 
is  set  down  as  either  5  or  nothing.  5  in  the  fourth  place  is, 
however,  100  times  more  accurate  than  5  in  the  second  place, 
which  enables  a  comparison  to  be  made  between  the  accuracy 
of  the  gaugings  of  1891  and  that  of  the  so-called  gaugings  of 
1876:  about  266  cubic  feet  for  a  0.0005  ft.,  as  compared 


Q  AND  h.  39 

with  26,666  cubic  feet  for  a  0.05  ft.  rise  or  fall  in  the  reser- 
voir. This  illustrates,  also,  the  care  that  must  be  taken  in 
measuring  water-heights  when  one  undertakes  to  meter  the 
flow  of  a  36"  or  38"  pipe  by  means  of  the  rise  of  water  in 
a  i3-acre  reservoir.  Q  in  Nos.  704-710  is  probably  correct 
within  i  or  2  per  cent. 

The  weir  used  for  expeiiments  Nos.  500-599  gave  results 
probably  correct  within  I  or  2  per  cent.  Those  used  for  experi- 
ments Nos.  300-399  gave  results  probably  correct  within  3  or  4 
per  cent.  But  it  is  impossible  to  say  what  accuracy  was  at- 
tained by  the  weir  measurements  of  experiments  Nos.  100-149, 
except  from  the  measure  of  their  agreement  with  No.  108, 
which  was  made  in  1896,  and  the  Q  of  which  was  measured 
with  a  Venturi  meter.  Few  engineers,  even  hydraulic  or 
water-works  engineers,  realize  to  what  extent  a  weir  measure- 
ment, to  make  the  result  accurate,  must  be  an  exact  repetition 
or  close  imitation  of  some  other  weir  measurement,  made  per- 
haps fifty  years  before,  but  used  as  the  basis  on  which  was 
founded  the  weir  formula  proposed  to  be  used.  Without  such 
close  imitation  the  proposed  formula  does  not  apply,  and 
modern  experiment  has  abundantly  shown  that  a  very  little 
variation  in  weir  construction,  or  proportional  measurements 
of  the  weir,  and  of  the  water  passing  over,  will  make  a  serious 
difference  in  the  results.*  The  fact  is  that  the  flow  of  water 
over  a  weir  is  one  of  the  most  capricious,  complex,  change- 
able forms  of  the  flow  of  water  which  we  have,  and  one  that 
cannot  be  relied  upon  to  give  true  results  except  when  handled 
by  experts.  As  well  were  it  to  assume  that  because  a  violin 

*  See  Bazin,  in  Annales  des  fonts  et  Chaussees,  1894. 


4O  CARRYING    CAPACITY  OF  METAL    CONDUITS. 

is  a  choice  musical  instrument,  all  notes  produced  upon  it 
are  true  in  sound  and  volume.  On  the  other  hand,  as  will  be 
shown  presently,  given  a  Venturi  meter  once  set  in  line  of 
a  pipe,  and  a  true  gauging  is  as  easily  made  as  striking  a 
correct  chord  or  note  on  a  piano. 

The  weirs  used  in  experiments  Nos.  100-149  are  some  of 
the  permanent  iron  weirs  set  in  the  terminal  gate-house  at 
South  Orange  Avenue.*  Their  use  is  to  keep  a  rough  check 
on  quantities  delivered  or  wasted,  so  as  to  enable  the  gate- 
keeper, from  the  gate-house,  to  control  the  flow  of  water;  or 
to  indicate  changes  in  quantity  at  the  gate-house ;  accurate 
measurements  being  made  by  Venturi  meters  set  in  the  pipe- 
line. It  would  have  been  impracticable,  both  on  account  of 
expense  and  because  the  gate-house  could  not  be  put  out  of 
service,  to  make  the  changes  needed  to  convert  these  weirs 
into  weirs  built  in  conformity  to  the  requirements  of  the 
Francis  or  any  other  weir  formula;  and  at  the  time,  the 
present  form  of  Venturi  meter  register  had  not  yet  been  in- 
vented. The  36"  conduit  being  under  some  150  ft.  head 
at  the  point  where  its  Venturi  meter  is  set,  open  glass  tubes 
to  measure  head  could  not  be  used,  and  there  was  no  time  to 
construct  a  pressure-difference  gauge  that  was  thought  of,  to 
be  formed  by  joining  the  upper  ends  of  two  such  tubes,  and 
forcing  air  into  the  junction-member,  f 

Thus  it  has  come  about  that  only  an  incomplete  set  of 
gaugings  represent  experiments  on  the  36"  conduit  when  it 

*  Journal  N.  E.  Water-works  Association,  Sept.  1893,  Plate  36.  See 
also  Engineering  News,  June  15,  July  6  and  13,  1893. 

f  A  form  of  pressure-difference  gauge,  designed  by  Emil  Kuichling, 
M.  Am.  Soc.  C.  E. ,  which  uses  two  connecting  tubes  of  mercury,  is  de- 
scribed by  him  in  Tr.  Am.  Soc.  C.  E.,  May  1892. 


PLATE  II. 


£    o 


w 

^    a; 


H  & 

w  a) 

«  JS 

*  2 

w  "V 

H  ?" 


[Facing  page  41.] 


Q  AND  h.  41 

was  new.  And  although  the  depths  upon  the  weir  were 
measured  with  a  hook-gauge,  the  construction  of  the  weir 
was  far  enough  from  the  form  prescribed  by  the  experiments 
on  which  was  founded  the  Francis  formula  to  make  our  only 
basis  for  judging  the  degree  of  approximation  to  the  truth 
attained  by  the  results,  the  measure  of  agreement  of  one  such 
result  with  another  found  by  means  of  the  Venturi  meter, 
some  five  years  later.  Nos.  100-149  have  accordingly  been 
marked  C,  with  the  exception  of  108,  which  is  entitled  to  be 
marked  A. 

There  remain  Nos.  1-99,  150-199,  and  200-299,  in 
which  Q  was  measured  with  a  Venturi  water-meter.  The 
Sept.  number,  1893,  Journal  N.  E.  Water- works  Associa- 
tion, shows  the  48"  Venturi  meter  of  conduit  No.  i,  built 
up  of  wood,  with  a  cast-iron,  brass-lined  throat-piece,  inside 
•of  the  48"  steel  pipe ;  together  with  a  discussion  of  this  form 
of  meter.*  This  paper  shows  also  the  36"  meter  used  in 
experiment  No.  108 ;  and  the  meters  used  in  experiments 
Nos.  150-299  were  precisely  similar  to  that  used  in  No.  108. 

The  author  has  made  three  accurate  sets  of  experiments 
upon  the  discharge  of  a  12",  a  48",  and  a  108"  Venturi 
meter  respectively,  and  upon  the  head  acting  on  the  throat, 
as  well  as  that  lost  in  passing  the  meter.  These  are  re- 
corded in  the  publications  that  have  been  cited.  Besides 
these  experiments,  many  of  the  parties  who  have  set  these 
meters  and  are  using  them  in  their  daily  practice  have  them- 
selves tested  them,  both  as  to  accuracy  of  gauging  and  as  to 

*  See  also  Tr.  Am.  Soc.  C.  E.,  Nov.  1887;  Merriman's  "A  Treatise  on 
Hydraulics"  (John  Wiley  &  Sons,  N.  Y.,  1895);  publications  by  the 
Builders'  Iron  Foundry  of  Providence,  R.  I. ,  U.  S.  A. ;  Engineering  (London,) 
Aug.  14,  1896;  Engineering  News  (New  York),  June  15,  July  13,  1893. 


42  CARRYING    CAPACITY  OF  METAL    CONDUITS. 

insignificance  of  head  lost  in  passing  the  meter.*  The  time 
has  gone  by  when  there  is  any  room  for  questioning  the 
accuracy  of  this  simple  instrument  when  used  to  measure 
either  water  or  air — though  not  a  pump-mixture  of  the  two, 
as  has  at  times  been  expected  of  it.  Nor  is  there  room  for 
being  carried  away  by  first  impressions  as  to  the  head  lost  in 
passing  the  meter.  There  are  plenty  of  careful  experiments 
extant  upon  both  these  classes  of  measurements,  which  surely 
might  be  allowed  to  control  the  first  computations  or  crude 
ideas  of  those  who  have  not  yet  become  acquainted  with  the 
subject-matter. 

But  inasmuch  as  such  false  theorizing  and  such  distorted 
views  are  yet  occasionally  met  with  even  in  print,  the  "  old, 
old  story  "  will  have  to  be  told  again,  in  this  essay,  for  the 
sake  of  completeness. 

Plate  I  shows  the  results  of  the  three  tests  of  Venturi 
meters  above  referred  to.  The  quantities  passing  the  12" 
meter  were  accurately  measured  in  a  masonry  tank  lined 
with  a  smooth  cement  coating;  those  passing  the  108" 
meter,  over  a  carefully  constructed  and  operated  weir; 
those  passing  the  48"  meter,  also  over  a  carefully  con- 
structed and  operated  weir.  The  48"  meter  was  set,  when 
tested,  in  the  position  it  still  occupies,  in  line  of  conduit 
No.  i  of  the  East  Jersey  Water  Company,  1 100  ft.  down- 
stream from  the  Intake  Gate-house.  The  weir  was  set  up 
in  a  temporary  open  flume  immediately  adjoining  the  gate- 
house. The  same  water  first  passed  the  weir,  then  entered 


*  Prof .  W.  C.  Unwin  testifies  to  this  last,  as  an  eye-witness,  in  Min. 
Proc.  Inst.  C.  E.  1895-1896,  Part  IV.  p.  90.  His  remarks  refer  to  the 
48"  meter  on  conduit  No.  i. 


OF  THB 

UNIVERSITY 


PLATE  III. 


10 


25 


1.08 
1.06 
1.04 
1.02 
1.00 
0.98 
0.96 
0.94 
0.92 
0.90 

0.40 
0.20 

4 
3 
2 

1 

WELOCI 

TY  THROUGH  THROAT  OF 

VENTURI  IN  FEET  PER  SECOND 

,3ff 

.so 

.11) 

1.00 
.'JO 
.80 

'.50 

.40 
.30 
.'JO 
.10 
0.00 

12 
11 
10 
9 
& 

r 

6 
5 
i 

3 

^ 

1 

\ 

CO               \ 

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_-_-_  —  _•  — 

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z 

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THROAT  OF 

VENTURI  IN 

-EET  PER  SEC 

O 
_l 

OND 

--^ 
VELOCI 

TY  THROUGH 

I/I 

l/i 

CURVES 

TO  EXPERIME 

><                     « 
«                    « 

NTS  ON  48  INC 
"    12      " 
»    108   « 

H  VENTURI 
K 
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f 

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'LOCITYTHR 

3UGH  THROA 

T  OF  VENTUF 

I  IN  FEETPE 

=?  SECOND 

5  10  15  20  25 

DIAGRAM  OF  EXPERIMENTS  ON  VENTURI  METERS. 

[Facing  page 


43.] 


Q  AND  h.  43 

conduit  No.  i,  and  noo  ft.  farther  down-stream  passed 
through  the  48"  meter.  Incidentally  it  may  be  mentioned 
that  21  miles  farther  down-stream  the  same  water  now 
passes,  in  the  operation  of  the  works,  another  48"  meter  set 
in  line  of  conduit  No.  I  ;  a  16"  and  a  12"  branch  between 
the  two  48"  meters  are  likewise  metered,  and  all  these 
meters  check  up ,  or  failing  to  check,  indicate  what,  if  any, 
leakage  exists  out  of  the  21  miles  of  conduit  No.  I.  No.  2 
conduit  is  similarly  fitted  with  a  meter  at  each  end,  Kearney 
Extension  has  two  such  meters  on  it,  the  36"  conduit  has 
one ;  and  generally,  the  East  Jersey  Water  Company  keeps 
an  account  and  a  record  of  the  details  of  the  disposal  of  its 
total  output  of  water.  It  is  enabled  to  do  so  wholly  by 
means  of  its  ten  Venturi  meters;  and  the  agreement  of 
these  meters  among  themselves  is  a  constant  proof  of  their 
accuracy. 

The  three  meters  tested  were  widely  different  in  interior 
finish.  The  12"  was  made  of  wood,  water-logged  before  it 
was  cut  to  shape,  carefully  planed,  and  otherwise  smoothed 
up  inside,  with  a  brass-lined  throat-piece.  The  108"  meter 
had  a  brass-lined  throat-piece,  but  the  two  cones  were  made 
of  board  slats  set  around  the  circumference  of  the  cone,  and 
fastened  to  circular  rings,  or  ribs,  with  1/4"  spacing,  so  as  to 
let  the  water  or  air  pass  freely  behind  the  cones  when  the 
meter  was  first  filled  or  emptied.  The  48"  meter  resembled 
the  12"  meter  in  interior  finish.  It  will  be  noted  that,  not- 
withstanding these  differences  of  construction,  and  notwith- 
standing the  different  methods  used  to  determine  the  quan- 
tity passing  the  weir,  the  results  are  closely  identical.  If  h 
represents  the  difference  of  pressure  at  the  inlet  and  at  the 


44  CARRYING    CAPACITY   OF  METAL    CONDUITS. 

throat,  irrespective  of  the  fact  whether  one  or  both  of  these 
pressures  themselves  be  positive  or  negative,  the  discharge  of 


the  meter  is,  theoretically,  Q  =  —====  \/2gh,  in  which  al 

V  fll  #3 

is  the  area  at  the  inlet,  and  a,  the  area  of  the  throat.  Prac- 
tically, we  must  use  a  coefficient  of  reduction,  whose  range 
is,  however,  surprisingly  small. 

As  will  be  seen  from  the  diagram,  this  coefficient  between 
the  limits  of  8  ft.  velocity  through  the  throat  (0.9  ft.  velocity 
in  the  pipe)  and  28  ft.  velocity  through  the  throat  (3.1  ft. 
velocity  in  the  pipe)  ranges  only  between  0.97  and  i.oo  for 
all  three  meters.  In  practical  use,  the  variation  of  the  coeffi- 
cient with  the  different  rates  of  flow  is  allowed  for,  both  when 
computing  the  discharge  or  in  the  construction  of  the  register 
to  be  used  with  the  meter.  These  meters,  to  read  right, 
after  they  are  once  properly  set,  need  only  be  kept  free  of 
entrained  air,  which  is  done  by  occasionally  letting  water  run 
through  the  pipes  connecting  the  meter  to  the  register.  They 
are  correct  in  practice  easily  within  I  per  cent. 

The  loss  of  head  in  passing  the  meter  is  insignificant.  In 
practice  it  -need  never  exceed  one  foot,  or  about  half  a  pound, 
and  is  generally  only  a  few  inches  of  water-pressure.  Plate 
I  shows  this  loss  of  head  as  measured  during  the  experiments 
on  the  12",  48",  and  108"  meters. 

We  pass  now  to  a  consideration  of  the  measurement  of  h 
during  the  115  experiments. 

"Nos.  300—399  give  k  as  computed  from  the  total  head 
between  the  water-surface  at  the  intake  to  water-surface  at 
the  outlet,  or  to  the  centre  of  outlet. 

No.  401   gives  h  as  levelled  between  the  water-surface  in 


Q  AND  h.  45 

open  "  stand-pipes  "  of  4"  or  more  diameter.  One  would 
think  that  such  stand-pipes  would  labor  under  the  disadvan- 
tage of  being  afflicted  with  considerable  fluctuations  of  level, 
which  may  have  been  checked,  however;  or  removed  by 
arithmetical  averaging. 

Nos.  500-599  give  h  as  measured  with  hook-gauges,  using 
still-boxes  of  some  two  square  feet  area  of  water-surface. 
The  connections  between  the  interior  of  the  conduit  and 
the  still-boxes  were  carefully  made  at  selected  points,  and 
smoothed  off  on  the  inside  of  the  conduit,  all  as  described  in 
Tr.  Am.  Soc.  C.  E.,  Nov.  1887. 

Nos.  600-699  give  h  as  measured  by  mercury  columns  or 
water-piezometers.  Respecting  the  connection  between  the 
pipes  and  the  piezometer-tubes,  it  is  stated,  p.  33,  "  Mouve- 
ment  de  1'eau  dans  les  tuyaux, "  as  follows:  "  On  cast-iron 
pipes  3/8"  thick  or  over,  the  taps  screwed  in  for  purposes  of 
attaching  piezometers  were  filed  out  rounding  across  their 
inner  end,  following  the  curvature  of  the  interior  surface  of 
the  pipe,  and  the  length  of  thread  of  the  screw  was  exactly 
calculated  to  cause  this  end  to  come  flush  with  this  interior 
surface.  On  pipes  of  less  than  3/8"  thickness,  and  on  the 
asphalted  sheet-iron  pipes,  the  ferules  were  soldered  on  to 
connect  with  a  hole  about  1/8"  in  diameter."  To  accept 
these  data  we  shall  have  to  suppose  that  inspection  of  the 
interior  surface,  after  screwing  in  the  tap  or  soldering  on 
the  ferule,  showed  that  the  intent  of  a  smooth  interior  sur- 
face had  been  accomplished,  because  without  such  inspec- 
tion it  would  be  very  difficult  to  give  the  exactly  proper 
number  of  turns  to  such  a  tap  to  cause  its  hollowed-out  end 
to  exactly  coincide  with  the  interior  surface  of  the  pipe,  or  to 


46  CARRYING    CAPACITY    OF  METAL    CONDUITS. 

be  sure  of  no  trouble  from  solder  or  inside  burr.  Some  of 
Darcy's  piezometric  results  are  quite  discordant,  as  shown  in 
Hamilton  Smith's  "  Hydraulics"  and  by  Hagen,  and  lack  of 
good  piezometer  attachment  attained,  in  spite  of  stated 
knowledge  of  its  importance,  may  have  been  the  cause  of 
this.  It  should  be  noted,  in  this  connection,  that  Darcy 
rejected  two  series  of  experiments  on  sheet-iron  asphalted 
pipe  on  account  of  the  discovery  by  him  of  the  lack  of  such 
good  piezometer  attachments  at  the  close  of  the  experiments. 
The  series  here  used  has  been  marked  B.  The  matter  of  a 
proper  or  the  best  form  of  piezometer  attachments  will  be 
referred  to  later  on. 

Nos.  701-703  give  h  as  measured  by  pressure-gauges. 
These  measurements  have  been  severely  and,  in  the  author's 
opinion,  unfairly  criticised  in  the  heat  of  the  discussion  which 
is  recorded  in  Tr.  Am.  Soc.  C.  E.,  1892,  I,  containing  also 
Mr.  Rafter's  rejoinder.  The  author  thinks  that,  as  regards 
values  of  h,  he  has  perhaps  unduly  criticised  them  by  marking 
them  C,  especially  Nos.  701  and  703,  which  covered  lengths  of 
conduit  10  miles  and  2  miles  long,  respectively.  The  results 
of  these  experiments,  as  will  be  noted,  are  in  fair  conformity 
with  those  found  by  later  experiments,  conducted  more  delib- 
erately and  with  better  apparatus. 

No.  704  gives  h  as  measured  with  the  difference  pressure- 
gauge  of  Mr.  Kuichling  already  above  referred  to  and 
described  in  Tr.  Am.  Soc.  C.  E.,  May  1892.  With  the 
piezometer  attachments  properly  and  carefully  made,  as  was 
probably  done,  this  must  result  in  an  accurate  determination 
of  h. 

No.  705  gives  h  as  determined  between  two  water-sur- 
faces by  spirit-level. 


Q  AND  h.  47 

Nos.  706-710  give  h  as  reported  in  the  January  1896 
Report  of  the  Chief  Engineer  of  Water-works  of  Rochester, 
N.  Y.  It  is  the  difference  in  elevation  of  two  water-surfaces 
from  9  to  18  miles  apart.  The  author  has  marked  these 
experiments  A. 

Nos.  1-299  giye  ^  as  measured  by  a  good  make  of 
Bourdon  gauges,  which  were  tested  at  about  the  pressure  at 
which  they  were  to  be  used,  before  and  after  experimenting, 
by  means  of  a  Crosby  gauge-tester.  No  single  reading  is 
probably  in  error  over  1/2  lb.,  or  about  I  ft. ;  and  when  it  is 
considered  that  the  lengths  were  never  less  than  a  mile,  and 
ranged  up  to  16  miles,  no  fault  can  be  found  with  this  uncer- 
tainty in  a  single  observation  of  one  foot  in  height.  For  it 
must  be  noted  that  each  experiment  includes  many  readings 
at  each  station  and  the  reading  of  pressures  at  some  eight  or 
nine  intermediate  points,  and  that  careful  plots  were  made  of 
each  which  showed  no  marked  errors  in  profile  alignment. 

These  measurements  were  all  taken  in  the  field  by  Mr.  J. 
Waldo  Smith,  M.  Am.  Soc.  C.  E.,  the  earlier  ones  at  his 
own  instance,  the  later  ones  in  pursuance  of  a  settled  deter- 
mination on  the  part  of  the  East  Jersey  Water  Co.  to  get  at 
all  the  main  facts  bearing  on  the  discharge  of  riveted  conduits. 
Mr.  Smith  has  been  an  assistant  of  the  author  for  the  past 
twelve  years,  in  Holyoke,  Mass.,  and  on  the  work  in  New 
Jersey,  and  is  an  accomplished  student  and  observer  of  hy- 
draulic phenomena.  In  some  of  the  later  experiments  a  part 
of  the  observations  were  taken  by  Mr.  Winslow  H.  Herschel 
(Harvard,  1896),  well  fitted  by  previous  experience  for  that 
work. 

It   should  also  be  noted  that  extra  pains  were  taken  to 


48  CARRYING    CAPACITY  OF  METAL    CONDUITS. 

keep  the  pressure  at  the  down-stream  end  of  the  conduit  con- 
stant during  experiments.  This  was  done  by  stationing  a 
gatekeeper  to  watch  the  gauge  and  keep  it  steady  by  open- 
ing or  throttling  the  discharge,  the  major  part  of  which  is 
ordinarily  controlled  by  pressure-regulators.  This  insures  a 
constant  discharge  of  the  conduit  no  less  than,  and  becau-se 
of,  a  constant  hydraulic  gradient. 

The  marked  weights  to  be  given  the  several  experiments 
sufficiently  indicate  the  author's  estimate  of  their  accuracy 
and  value. 

This  may  be  a  proper  place  to  discuss  forms  of  piezom- 
eter and  methods  of  piezometer  attachment. 

In  the  first  place,  at  what  point  in  the  circumference  of  a 
pipe  should  it  be  tapped  ?  The  author  has  shown  in  his  original 
paper  on  the  Venturi  Meter,  Tr.  Am.  Soc.  C.  E.,  Nov.  1887, 
that  piezometers  tapped  into  a  pipe  at  different  points  in  the 
circumference  do  not  read  alike.  This  statement  must  not 
be  confounded  with  the  ^case  wholly  foreign  to  the  construc- 
tion of  true  piezometers,  which  considers  the  effect  of  tap- 
ping a  small  tube  or  branch  into  a  pipe  at  an  angle  with  the 
axis  of  the  pipe ;  a  misconception  of  terms  unhappily  injected 
into  such  a  discussion  on  p.  303,  Tr.  Am.  Soc.  C.  E.,  July 
1896.  The  piezometers  now  spoken  of  are  all  at  exact  right 
angles  to  the  "flow  of  the  stream";  they  are  all  smoothed 
off  inside  the  pipe,  and  made  flush  with  the  smooth  interior 
surface  of  the  pipe,  and  yet  they  do  not  read  alike. 

Insertion  at  the  zenith  should  be  excluded,  because  then 
they  are  sure  to  give  trouble  from  air-bubbles  rising  in  them. 
As  to  choice  of  position  elsewhere  around  the  circumference,, 
the  author  knows  of  no  conclusive  experiments.  Such  are, 


Q  AND  h.  49 

however,  much  needed,  and  will  be  furnished  from  some  of 
our  hydraulic  laboratories  before  long,  it  is  to  be  hoped. 

The  next  question  that  confronts  one  is  as  to  the  proper 
diameter  of  the  tap.  For  some  reason  old  experimenters 
have  had  the  feeling  or  notion  that  this  tap  must  be  very 
minute,  1/8"  in  the  Darcy  experiments  above  referred  to. 
On  the  other  hand,  one-inch  taps  have  given  accordant 
results,  no  less  than  4"  and  larger  stand-pipes.  So  far  as  the 
author  knows,  the  only  objection  to  large  taps  or  stand-pipes 
would  be  the  unavoidable  oscillation  of  the  water-surface  in 
them,  inherent  to  and  an  accompaniment  of  all  flowing  water, 
which  it  would  then  be  necessary  to  observe  and  average 
arithmetically,  or  else  average  mechanically. 

This  last  is  ordinarily  done  by  placing  a  stopcock  some- 
where in  line  of  the  piezometer  connection,  and  throttling  it, 
until  the  area  of  the  inlet  has  so  small  a  ratio  to  the  cross- 
section  of  the  water-column  to  be  observed,  that  these  oscil- 
lations practically  disappear.  Or,  as  was  done  in  experi- 
ments Nos.  500-599,  the  cross-section  of  the  water-column 
is,  to  begin  with,  made  large  enough  to  allow  of  only  minute 
oscillations  in  height  during  the  experiment. 

In  the  original  paper  on  the  Venturi  Water-meter,  already 
referred  to,  is  described  the  method  therein  adopted  for 
equalizing  unknown  disturbing  causes  that  might  affect  the 
indications  of  a  single  piezometer  attachment,  by  making 
several,  4,  5,  6,  7,  or  8  such  at  any  cross-section,  leading 
them  all  into  one  pressure-chamber,  and  then  connecting  the 
piezometer  column  to  be  observed  with  this  still-water  pres- 
sure-chamber. This  plan  has  since  been  adopted  by  other 
hydraulic  experimenters,  has  been  retained  for  the  past  ten 


SO  CARRYING    CAPACITY   OF  METAL    CONDUITS. 

years  in  the  constant  practice  of  the  author,  and  in  the  con- 
struction of  scores  of  Venturi  meters,  and  has  invariably  given 
excellent  satisfaction. 

At  the  same  time  it  is  still  true  that  but  little  positive 
knowledge  is  yet  extant  on  the  finer  points  of  the  operation 
or  working  of  piezometer-tubes.  Concerning  the  effect,  if  any, 
upon  the  indications  of  a  piezometer-tube  directly  observed, 
of  a  current  passing  by,  in  an  open  channel,  at  right  angles  to 
such  a  tube,  apart  from  the  necessary  effect  of  the  current  in 
diminishing  the  hydraulic  level  of  the  contained  water,  we 
have  a  series  of  most  careful  experiments,  but  that  is  about 
all  we  have  as  a  test  of  piezometers.*  In  experiments  Nos. 
1-299  tne  pressure-gauge  was,  as  a  rule,  attached  to  an  equaliz- 
ing pressure-chamber,  formed  by  the  hood  of  a  shut-off  gate, 
connected  by  a  6"  or  8"  pipe  with  the  conduit  under  experi- 
ment. A  constant  effect  thus  produced,  if  any,  would  be 
eliminated,  from  the  fact  that  the  whole  series  of  heights 
were  thus  observed ;  and  any  particular  effect  at  any  one  sta- 
lion  would  be  annulled,  or  else  discovered,  by  being  obliged 
to  plot  in  one  straight  profile-line  with  the  heights  observed  at 
the  other  stations  of  the  series.  In  case  of  a  rough  pipe  like  a 
-riveted  conduit,  it  is  plain  that  a  single  small  piezometer-tube, 
tapped  in  ever  so  expertly  and  smoothed  off  ever  so  carefully 
on  the  inside,  is  subject  to  unknown  disabilities,  by  reason  of 
cross-currents  or  eddies  caused  by  rivet-heads  or  laps  of 
plates,  no  matter  where  it  might  penetrate  the  interior  sur- 
face of  the  conduit. 

*See  Tr.  Am.  Academy  of  Arts  and  Sciences,  1878:  Hiram  F.    Mills, 
ut  Experiments  upon  Piezometers." 


-^L^r^ 

UNIVERSITY 


PLATE  IV. 


4.0 


5.0  6.0 

[Faring  page  51.] 


CHAPTER    VI. 

THE   COEFFICIENT   C   IN   v  =  C  Vrs~. 

»  "  Les  formules  ne  sont  que  des  outils  que  doit  di- 

riger  1'intelligence  et  qui  ne  peuvent  jamais  la  rem- 
placer." — DuPUIT,  Etudes  sur  le  Mouvement  des  Eaux 
(1863),  p.  228. 

(Formulae  are  mere   tools  for  the  intellect  to  make 
use  of  ;  they  can  never  take  its  place.) 

"  There  is  no  such  thing  in  Nature  ;  and  you'll  draw 
A  faultless  monster  which  the  world  ne'er  saw." 
— SHEFFIELD,    Duke   of    Buckinghamshire,   1649- 
1720.     Essay  on  Poetry. 

FOR  reasons  to  be  discussed  in  another  chapter,  the  author 
has  chosen  to  represent  the  results  of  the  115  experiments  in 
form  of  a  series  of  coefficients  of  the  old-time  simple  formula, 
v  —  c  Vrs,  commonly  called  the  Chezy  formula  and  well 
known  in  the  engineering  literature  of  Germany,  France, 
England,  and  the  United  States.  The  coefficients  here  given 
could  have  been  presented  in  Table  I  as  computed  for  each 
experiment ;  but  it  has  seemed  more  sensible  and  equally  ex- 
act to  first  draw  a  curve  of  such  coefficients  as  computed  from 
slopes  read  off  at  regular  intervals  from  a  diagram  of  slopes. 

Experiments  Nos.  1-99  on  the  48"  cylinder-joint  conduit 
No.  I  can  be  resolved  into  three  groups :  the  1892  experiments, 
the  1896  experiments  above  Pompton  Notch,  and  the  1896  ex- 
periments below  Pompton  Notch,  as  shown  on  Plate  IV.  The 

51 


52  CARRYING    CAPACITY   OF  METAL    CONDUITS. 

TABLE  II. 


Velocity  in 

Conduit  or  Pipe. 

Feet  per 
Second. 

Coefficient. 

Remarks. 

No.  i,  cylinder-joint,  48" 

I.O 

IOI.2 

New;  in  1892. 

diameter. 

1-5 

105.4 

B. 

Experiments  Nos.  1-99. 

2.O 

108.8 

2.5 

III.  2 

3-0 

112.  8 

0 

3.5 

II3-4 

4.0 

II3-2 

4.5 

II2.4 

5.0 

112.  0 

5.5 

in.  7 

6.0 

in.  6 

Same. 

I.O 

78.0 

Above  Pompton  Notch. 

i-5 

84.6 

4  years  old. 

2.0 

89.6 

A. 

2.5 

92.4 

3-0 

93-o 

3-5 

93-2 

4.0 

94-0 

4-5 

94.2 

5-0 

94.4 

5-5 

94.7 

6.0 

94-9 

Same. 

I.O 

97.2 

Below  Pompton  Notch. 

1-5 

100.8 

4  years  old. 

2.0 

103.3 

A. 

2-5 

104.9    ! 

3-0 

105.3 

3-b 

104.8 

4.0 

104.0    j 

4-5 

103.7 

5-o 

103.7 

5.5 

103.7 

6.0 

103.7 

36"  cylinder-joint. 

10 

86.0 

New;  in  1892. 

Experiments  Nos.  100-149. 

i.5 

90.8 

C. 

2.0 

95-2 

2.5 

99-4 

3*O 

103.3 

3-5 

107.0 

4.0 

no.  6 

4-5 

114.0 

5.o 

117.2 

5-5 

120.4 

6.0 

123.6 

Same. 

4-93 

106.3 

4  years  old.     A. 

6.0 


5.0 


4.0 


3.0 


2.0 


1.0 


PLATE  V. 


EXPERIMENTS  O,N  48   IN.   bONDUIT   NO.  I 


COEF 


*92  TO 


IS 


IN   V= 


«: 


I/ 


" 


80. 


90. 


100. 


110. 
[Facing  page  52.) 


PLATE  VII. 


I 

// 

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XP 

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IIV 

El 

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DOJNE 

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EFF. 

(CJJIN  y=^ 

R. 

S 

90. 


100. 


110, 


130. 

[Facing  page  52.] 


OF   THK 

UNIVERSITY 


PLATE  VI. 


\    \     \ 

1 

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/ 

EXPERIMENTS 

ON   36 

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NDUI 

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0                     1.0                    2.0                    3.0                    4.0                    5.0                    60 

[Fad ng  page  52.] 


PLATE  VII 


3.0 


:>ER 

1  I  1 

| 

1     1     1     1     1 

EX 

IMENT5 

ON 

42   K 

EARNEY  EXTE 

NSI 

ON 

- 

JAN'.  AN 

D  NOVJ  1 

H 

6. 

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b 

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OC 

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1  , 

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1 

f\ 

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— 

X 

J 

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^-^ 

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ViEL 

*     i 

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OpIjTY  IN  IfE 

ET  F^ER  SEC. 

2.0 


1.0 


1.0 


2.0 


3.0 


4.0 


5.0  6.0 

[Facing  page  52.] 


PLATE  IX. 


6.0 

5.0 
O 

LU 
CO 

cc 

LU 

°-     4.0 

LU 
LU 

U. 

z 

>• 

H-     3.0 

O 
0 

LU 

> 

2.0 
1.0 

1  EXP 

EF 

ZIMENT 

s  or 

\  42 

KEA 

^NEY   EXT  ENS 

ION 

J 

I 

JAN. 

AND 

^oy.  • 

896. 

_ 

— 

— 

1 

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i 

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v= 

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i 

80.                             'JO.                            100.                           110. 
[Facing  page  52.] 

PLATE  X 


3.0 


\  \  \ 

\ 

EXPERIMENTS  ON 

CONDUIT  NO. 

2 

Jur 

^E  T 

DOCT.  ^96. 

1 

! 

j 

/ 

; 

1  

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z 

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F 

HI,  
LU 

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VE 

E) 

(PERI 

MENT 

8 

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C6RRE6T^D.|      |      |      |     | 

i 

r/ 

cc 

O 

42"c6NDU 

Tb.k.EXF 

ERIM 

EN 

TS 

7 

/ 

LJ 

Q. 

A 

48"CONDU 

T 

u 

u 

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Q 

2- 

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— 

? 

A-i 

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u. 

, 

// 

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0 

g 

CO, 

co 

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0 

0 

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3 

^ 

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— 

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1 

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i 

£ 

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^-^ 

VEL 

OCI 

'\i  Ify  FEET|P 

ER  SEC. 

2.0 


1.0 


1.0 


2.0 


3.0 


4.0 


6.0 


[Facing  page  52.J 


PLATE  XI. 


6.0 


100. 


110. 

{Facing  page  52.] 


THE    COEFFICIENT  c  IN  v  —  c  Vrs. 

TABLE  II. — Continued. 


S3 


Conduit  or  Pipe. 

Velocity  in 
Feet  per 

Coefficient. 

Remarks. 

Second. 

Kearney    Extension,     42", 

I.O 

96.0 

New. 

taper-joint. 

1-5 

103.0 

B-f- 

Experiments  Nos.  150-199. 

2.0 

107.9 

2-5 

III.O 

3-0 

112.  6 

3-5 

113.0 

4.0 

112.  8 

4-5 

ill.  8 

5.o 

no.  8 

5-5 

no.  2 

6.0 

IIO.O 

Conduit  No.  2,  48",  taper- 
joint. 

I.O 

1.5 

97.1 
98.7 

New. 
Above  Pompton  Notch. 

Experiments  Nos.  200-249. 

2.0 

100.3 

A. 

2.5 

101  .6 

3-0 

102.2 

3-5 

103.6 

4.0 

104.2 

4-5 

104.7 

5.0 

I05.I 

5-5 

105.2 

6.0 

105.2    (?) 

Conduit  No.  2,  42",  taper- 
joint. 

I.O 

IOI.O 

102.8 

New. 
Below  Pompton  Notch. 

Experiments  Nos.  250-299. 

2.0 

104.3 

A. 

2-5 

105.5 

3-0 

106.4 

3-5 

107.2 

4.0 

107.8 

4-5 

108.2 

5-0 

108.4 

5-5 

108.  ^ 

*  . 

6.0 

108.5  (?) 

Hamilton  Smith's  n",  13", 

4.71 

107.1 

New,    or   worn   smooth 

and  15",  taper-joint. 
Experiments  Nos.  300-399. 

6.09 

110.6 

by  velocities  up  to  20 
feet,   and   rocks    and 

4-59 

109.4 

gravel  passing  through 

6.96 

II3-4 

occasionally. 

B. 

4.38 

in.  6 

6.84 

117.8 

Astoria,  16",  cylinder-joint. 

4.58 

IIO.O 

New. 

No.  401. 

B. 

54  CARRYING    CAPACITY  OF  METAL    CONDUITS. 

TABLE   II. — Continued. 


Conduit  or  Pipe. 

Velocity  in 
Feet  per 
Second. 

Coefficient. 

Remarks. 

Holyoke,     108",     cylinder- 
joints. 
Experiments  Nos.  500-599. 

0-5 
I.O 

1-5 

2.O 
2-5 

3-o 

3.5 
4.0 

4.5 

126.5 
116.6 
112.7 
110.3 
108.8 
107.7 
106.9 
106.2 
105.6 

5  years  old. 
B. 

Darcy's  nj"  pipe,  "screw- 
joints." 
Experiments  Nos.  600-699. 

1.30 

2.78 
3.87 

4.90 
6.67 

101.3 
114.0 

121.  6 

122.5 
126.5 

Presumably  new. 
B 

Rochester  conduits.cylinder- 
joints. 
Experiments  Nos.  700-705. 
36"  pipe. 

1.47 
1.49 

80.4 
83.0 

C.     14  years  old. 
B 

Same.     24"  pipe. 

3.32 

3.32 
3.35 

76.0 

78.5 

80.5 

C. 
C. 
B. 

Same.     Experiments    Nos. 
706,  707.    38"  pipe. 

3.23 
3.27 

114.0 

116.6 

New. 
A. 

Same.     Experiments    Nos. 
708-710.      38"  pipe  on  a 
different     section      than 
706,  707. 

3.88 
3.90 
3.91 

109.3 

109.1 

109.3 

New. 
A. 

corresponding  coefficients  are  shown  on  Plate  V.  And  the 
table  that  follows  gives  the  coefficients  derived,  as  above 
stated,  from  all  of  the  experiments  on  the  conduits  of  the  East 
Jersey  Water  Company,  and  those  copied  from  literature 
upon  the  subject. 

If  we  had  ten  times  as  many  experiments  on  riveted  con- 
duits as  are  detailed  in  Tables  I  and  II,  some  approach 
might  possibly  be  made  to  deducing  standard  tables,  or 
possibly  formulae  of  discharge  for  that  class  of  conduits.  But 


PLATE  XII. 


{Facing  page  55.] 


THE    COEFFICIENT  C  IN  V  =  C  Vrs.  5£ 

with  the  paucity  of  experiments  at  hand,  but  few  permanent 
deductions  can  be  drawn. 

Let  us  hope  that  these  experiments  will  give  renewed 
encouragement  to  engineers  to  make  and  publish  similar 
results  of  tests.  If  engineers  will  remain  content  at  rare 
intervals  to  launch  forth  upon  a  long-suffering  professional- 
world,  with  much  bestowal  of  learning  and  of  disquisition,, 
papers  giving  results  that  can  be  expressed  by  a  single  point,., 
or  perhaps  two  or  three  points,  on  a  diagram  of  pipe-dis- 
charges, the  art  cannot  make  very  rapid  progress.  But  if 
they  will  elect  to  fit  their  pipe-lines  with  meters,  so  that 
the  discharge  of  a  conduit  may  be  known  at  any  instant  as 
readily  and  as  accurately  as  the  discharge  of  a  5/8"  service 
pipe  may  now  be  thus  known,  the  science  of  practical  hydrau- 
lics will  have  received  a  great  and  lasting  impetus ;  for  the 
making  of  experiments  on  long  conduits  will  then  have  been 
robbed  of  nigh  all  its  terrors ;  terrors  which  in  the  past,  or 
until  quite  recently,  had  necessarily  arisen  from  the  difficulty 
of  metering  the  flow  of  large  pipes. 

The  author  has  abundantly  shown  how  this  can  be  done 
permanently  on  all  conduits,  and  at  a  mere  nominal  expense. 
The  modern  way  to  make  conduit  experiments  is  to  place  a 
Venturi  water-meter  in  line  of  the  conduit,  to  measure  dis- 
charges. Then  have  a  telephone-line  along  the  pipe-line,, 
and  let  the  principal  observer  or  observers  carry  with  therm 
so-called  "  test-boxes,"  being  light,  portable  telephones,, 
that  can  be  instantly  connected  with  the  telephone-wires  at 
any  desired  station  along  the  pipe-line.  One  or  two  ob- 
servers then  pass  along  the  line  taking  pressure-readings, 
while  a  gatekeeper  at  each  end  keeps  the  pressure  and  dis- 
charge constant.  When  one  set  of  pressure-readings  is  com- 


$6  CARRYING    CAPACITY   OF  METAL    CONDUITS. 

pleted,  the  telephone  conveys  the  orders  what  to  do  next,  to 
the  two  gatekeepers;  and  in  this  way  a  pipe  line  can  be 
tested,  at  several  velocities  of  flow  through  it,  in  a  single  day. 
The  Venturi  water-meter  is  therefore  no  doubt  destined  to 
confer  large  and  lasting  benefits  on  the  advancement  of 
hydraulic  science,  no  less  than  on  the  commercial  and  prac- 
tical management  of  .works  controlling  the  flow  of  water. 
And  the  present  set  of  experiments  may  serve  as  an  example 
of  what  it  can  do  in  contributing  to  the  knowledge  of  the  civil 
engineer,  and  to  hydraulic  science,  on  a  subject  on  which  but 
very  few  experiments  have  hitherto  been  extant. 

Let  us  see  whether  any  indications  can  be  arrived  at  from 
the  data  now  at  hand  as  to  the  diminution  in  carrying  capacity 
of  riveted  conduits  by  the  lapse  of  time. 

We  have  not  enough  experiments  to  determine  whether 
conduit  No.  I  had  the  same  coefficient  both  above  and  below 
Pompton  Notch  when  new.  If  it  did,  it  would  indicate  more 
rapid  deterioration  nearer  the  Intake  than  5  miles  farther 
down-stream.  The  diminution  was  from,  say,  112  to  93  and 
to  104,  respectively,  in  four  years,  or  from  4$  to  2%  per 
annum. 

The  36"  conduit  changed  at  one  velocity  from  about  116.7 
to  106.3  in  four  years,  or  about  2\%  per  annum. 

The  Rochester  conduit  was  not  tested  when  new;  but 
assuming  that  it  carried  about  8  million  gallons  in  1876,  and 
that  the  coefficient  of  the  36"  pipe  was  then  about  94,  and  of 
the  24"  pipe  about  100,  these  seem  to  have  lost  about  \%  and 
I  j#  per  annum,  respectively,  in  fourteen  years  ;  though  it  may 
well  be  that  this  diminution  of  discharge  obtained  at  a  greater 
rate,  say  2$,  during  the  first  five  or  six  or  more  years,  and  then 
ceased.  As  we  are  at  present  informed,  it  would  seem  that  a 


THE    COEFFICIENT  c  IN  V  —  C  Vrs.  $f 

diminution  of  2-4$  annually  for  five  years  might  occur,  and 
under  some  circumstances  would  have  to  be  provided  for. 
If  more  is  to  be  guarded  against,  arrangements  could  be  made 
to  clean  the  conduit  occasionally.  It  ought  not  to  be  very 
difficult  to  devise  a  brush,  after  the  manner  of  what  is  called  a 
"  go-devil  "  on  oil  pipe-lines,  and  entrances  and  exits  for  it,  to 
brush  out  the  inner  surfaces  of  long  pipe-lines.  Such  a  one 
has  been  devised  to  go  through  the  conduits  of  the  East 
Jersey  Water  Company,  including  the  Venturi  meters  set  in 
the  line,  but  occasion  for  its  use  did  not  arise.*  As  we  have 
seen,  the  mere  running  through  the  conduit  of  anchor-ice, 
for  one  or  two  nights,  increased  the  coefficient  of  discharge 
about  7$. 

It  would  be  gratifying  to  be  able  to  deduce  from  the  1 1 5 
experiments  the  effect  of  the  diameter,  and  of  the  method  of 
construction  of  the  conduits  upon  the  coefficient,  arid  to  de- 
termine the  relation  between  the  coefficient  for  smooth  and 
for  riveted  pipe.  In  the  author's  opinion,  this  cannot  yet  be 
done.  To  form  any  correct  judgment  in  these  matters  would 
require  many  more  experiments.  It  is  not  proposed,  there- 
fore, to  do  more  than  present  some  very  incomplete  tables 
and  diagrams  looking  in  those  directions.  It  were  an  easy 
thing  to  take  any  half-dozen  of  the  experiments  and  deduce 
from  them  all  sorts  of  happy  agreements  with  all  sorts  of 
previously  published  formulae,  no  less  than  to  indulge  in  an 
independent  exploitation  of  the  method  of  least  squares,  or  of 
logarithmic  homologues,  and  thus  set  up  one  or  more  new 
formulae  to  fit  these  half-dozen  and  some  other  experiments, 
very  nicely  indeed  ;  but  it  is  more  difficult,  even  impracticable, 

*  See,  on  this  question,  Min.  Proc.  Inst.  C.  E.,  1803-1894,  Pt.  II.  307. 


58  CARRYING    CAPACITY  OF  METAL    CONDUITS. 

to  do  this  with  84  new  experiments.      In  another  chapter  we 
may  profitably  inquire  why  this  is  so. 

Comparing  now  the  experiments  on  new  riveted  pipes 
with  each  other  and  with  new  smooth  pipe  as  tabulated  by 
Hamilton  Smith,  we  get  the  table  that  follows : 

TABLE  III. 

COEFFICIENTS    FOR   NEW   RIVETED    CONDUITS,  AS   DERIVED 
FROM   THE   115   EXPERIMENTS. 


Weight 

B 

A 

B 

A 

A 

B 

A 

A 

A 

Diameter 

108-' 

108" 

48' 

48" 

48" 

42" 

42" 

42" 

38" 

Pipe  and 
joint 

cyl. 

smooth 

cyl. 

taper 

smooth 

taper 

taper 

smooth 

cyl. 

Surface 

new 

new 

new 

new 

new 

new 

new 

new 

new 

v  =  I 

(?) 

139 

IOI 

97 

123 

96 

IOI 

120 

2 

145 

109 

IOO 

130 

108 

IO4 

121 

3 

I4Q 

"3 

102 

^34 

H3 

1  06 

fjf 

"5 

4 

152 

"3 

IO4 

137 

"3 

1  08 

135 

109 

I 

::: 

112 
112 

105 
105 

140 
142 

in 
no 

108 
108 

137  \ 
I3Q 

Weight 

c 

A 

B 

A 

B 

* 

B 

A 

B 

B 

Diameter 

36" 

J6" 

24" 

24." 

16" 

15" 

13" 

12" 

ui" 

u" 

Pipe  and 
joint 

cyl. 

smooth 

cyl. 

smooth 

cyl. 

taper 

taper 

smooth 

screw 

taper 

Surface 

new 

new 

new 

new 

new 

smooth 

smooth 

new 

new 

smooth 

V  —  I 

86 

117 

(?) 

joq 

qb 

98 

2 

95 

124 

nb 

104 

109 

3 

103 

128 

J2I 

.  .  . 

IOQ 

117 

4 

in 

131 

124 

III 

108 

112 

121 

1 

117 
124 

134 

7J?6 

... 

126 
I2Q 

110 

"3 
IIO 

no 

112 

114 

ub 

I2J 
126 

1  08 
IIO 

THE    COEFFICIENT  C  IN  V  —  C  Vrs.  59 

The  first  strange  result  portrayed  in  Table  III  is  the  fact 
that  a  48"  taper-joint  pipe  should  at  times  have  a  smaller 
coefficient  than  a  48"  cylinder-joint  pipe.  The  author  can 
suggest  no  explanation,  except  it  be  a  difference  in  smooth- 
ness of  the  asphalt  dip,  so  much  in  favor  of  conduit  No.  i, 
as  to  more  than  outweigh  the  advantages  of  the  taper-joint. 
It  is  a  historical  fact  that  48"  conduit  No.  2  was  dipped  in 
the  winter,  for  cold-weather  work,  but  remained  uncovered 
during  some  very  warm  days,  causing  a  modified  form  of 
stalactites  of  asphalt  to  form  in  the  interior.  A  similar 
explanation  is  suggested  to  account  for  the  difference  in  the 
two  42"  taper-joint  pipes.  Kearney  Extension  pipe  had  a 
smoother  asphalt  dip  than  any  of  the  other  conduits.  The 
two  prints  showing  the  interior  of  conduit  No.  2  exhibit 
the  wrinkles  of  asphalt  frequently  found  in  lines  of  pipe. 
Kearney  Extension  42"  had  a  smoother  coating  of  asphalt 
than  conduit  No.  2  ;  and  the  upper  end  of  conduit  No.  I 
was  smoother  than  the  48"  section  of  conduit  No.  2. 
Neither  the  Darcy  I  ij"  pipe  nor  the  36"  pipe  coefficients 
conform  in  variation  with  the  different  velocities  through 
them  to  the  rest  of  the  table.  Both  increase  decidedly  with 
an  increase  of  velocity,  while  the  other  pipes  show  no  marked 
increase  of  this  sort. 

No  deduction  at  all  can  be  drawn  from  the  table  as  to 
the  effect  of  the  diameter  on  the  coefficient. 

The  figures  in  small  italics  refer  to  the  coefficient  for 
smooth  pipes  of  the  same  diameter,  as  deduced  by  Hamilton 
Smith,  p.  271  of  "Hydraulics,"  from  the  best  experiments 
extant  on  such  pipes.  The  difference  between  the  letter- 
press figures  and  those  in  italics  should  indicate  the  effect  of 


6o 


CARRYING    CAPACITY  OF  METAL    CONDUITS. 


roughness  of  interior  produced  by  the  laps  of  plates  and  rivet- 
heads. 

It  will  be  noted  as  a  remarkable  exhibit  that  this  difference 
increases  with  the  diameter.  This  accounts  largely  for  the 
insistence  of  some  engineers  that  riveted  pipe  have  as  good  a 
carrying  capacity  as  new  cast-iron  pipe,  while  this  is  by  no 
means  true  for  large  diameters.  Engineers  who  have  stated 
and  insisted  as  above  have  formed  their  opinions  wholly  from 
a  consideration  of  riveted  pipes  less  than  18"  in  diameter,  or 
else  have  been  influenced  by  the  reported  "fake"  gaugings 
of  the  Rochester  36"  and  24"  conduit. 

The  table  below  will  be  readily  understood  from  the  ex- 
planations given  for  Table  III. 

TABLE  IV. 

COEFFICIENTS   FOR   OLD,  RIVETED   CONDUITS,  AS   DERIVED 
FROM   THE   115   EXPERIMENTS. 


Weight 

B 

A 

A 

A 

A 

C 

B 

A 

B 

A 

Diameter 

108" 

108" 

48" 

48" 

48" 

36" 

36" 

3t>" 

24" 

24" 

Pipe  and 
Joint 

cyl. 

smooth 

cyl. 

cyl. 

smooth 

cyl. 

cyl. 

smooth 

cyl. 

smooth 

Surface 

5  years 
old 

new 

4  years 
old 

4  years 
old 

new 

4oIdS 

14  years 
old 

new 

14  years 
old 

new 

V  —    I 

117 

VQ 

97 

78 

123 

7/7 

log 

2 

no 

*45 

103 

90 

130 

83 

124 

nb 

3 
4 

1  08 

106 

I4Q 

152 

105 
104 

93 
94 

134    ' 
'37 

(for  v 

128 

80 

121 

124 

104 

94 

140 

106 

134 

126 

6 

.  .  . 

104 

95 

142 

i3b 

*    " 

I2Q 

CHAPTER   VII. 


V  =  TABULATED  C  X 


"  If  this  be  treason,  make  the  most  of  it." 

—  PATRICK  HENRY,  1765. 

"  Difficult,  I  say,  for  the  truth  is,  these  knowledges, 
though  of  things  next  our  senses,  are  sometimes  more 
abstruse  and  hidden  than  the  knowledge  of  things 
more  remote  ;  and  much  better,  and  with  greater  ex- 
quisiteness  are  known  the  motions  of  the  Planets,  and 
Periods  of  the  stars,  than  those  of  Rivers  and  Seas  ; 
as  that  singular  light  of  Philosophic  of  our  times,  and 
my  master,  Signore  Galileo  Galilei  wisely  observeth 
in  his  book  concerning  the  Solar  spots."  * 

—  In  THOS.  SALLUSBURY'S  Mathematical  Collections^ 
1661  :  Castelli,  "On  the  Measurement  of  Running 
Water,"  1628. 

ALTHOUGH  the  author  has  declined  to  evolve  a  formula 
or  otherwise  to  attempt  to  determine  and  portray,  from  an 
analysis  of  the  115  experiments  at  hand,  the  complex  law, 
if  such  it  maybe  called,  governing  the  flow  of  water  in  riveted 
conduits,  it  may  be  proper,  nevertheless,  to  add  a  few  reflec- 
tions upon,  and  a  brief  historical  sketch  of,  the  studies  that 
have  been  made  concerning  the  relation  between  the  mean 

*  Istoria  e  Dimostrazioni  intorno  alle  Macchie  Solari  e  loro  accident! 
comprese  in  tre  lettere  scritte  al  Sig.  Marco  Velsero  da  Galileo  Galilei,  1613. 

This  saying  of  Galileo  is  also  quoted  in  "  Abhandlung  von  der  Ge- 
schwindigkeit  des  fliessenden  Wassers,"  etc.  (Brunings,  tr.  by  Kroncke, 
Frankfurt  a.  M.,  1789). 

61 


62  CARRYING    CAPACITY  OF  METAL    CONDUITS. 

velocity  of  water  flowing  in  a  pipe,  and  the  cross-section  and 
slope  of  the  pipe. 

Again  are  we  confronted  with  the  saying  of  Galileo  more 
than  250  years  ago,  above  quoted.  True  at  the  birth  of  hy- 
draulic science,  when  these  words  were  spoken,  they  are  almost 
equally  true  to-day. 

When  the  Academy  of  Sciences  of  Berlin  offered  a  prize, 
in  1750,  for  the  solution  of  the  problem :  to  state  the  relation 
between  the  mean  velocity  of  a  canal  or  river  and  its  slope 
and  cross-section,  the  celebrated  d'Alembert  declared  that  he, 
for  one,  did  not  think  he  had  the  requisite  powers  of  analysis 
nor  the  endurance  or  courage  to  undertake  the  solution  of 
such  a  problem  in  the  term  of  a  few  years.*  Nor  has  any 
mathematician  ever  done  more  than  attempt  to  solve  a  modi- 
fied problem  of  this  sort,  as  for  instance  the  celebrated  Euler, 
who  treated  it  on  the  supposition  that  all  the  particles  move 
in  right  lines,  f 

Experimenters  who  have  evolved  formulae  have  followed 
a  similar  routine  down  to  the  present  day.  They  first  endow 
flowing  water  with  attributes  which  it  does  not  possess,  and 
then  proceed  to  torture  the  few  experiments  they  may  have 
made,  or  may  collect,  into  the  straight-jacket  of  a  formula 
which  is  based  upon  those  non-existent  attributes  of  water. 
Or  else  they  use  the  milder  coercion  of  marshalling  the  few 
called  and  chosen  experiments,  willy-nilly,  by  the  gentler  per- 


*  Essai  d'une  nouvelle  theorie  de  la  resistance  des  fluides  (Paris,  1752); 
Introduction,  p.  29. 

f  "  Principes  generaux  du  mouvement  des  fluides"  (Berlin  Academy, 
1755);  and  tne  I77°  volume  of  the  Commentaries  of  the  Petersburg  Acad- 
emy, in  Latin  ;  German  translation  by  Prof.  Brandes  (Leipzig,  1805),  "  Die 
Gesetze  des  Gleichgewichts,  und  der  Bewegung  fliissiger  Korper." 


V  —  TABULATED  C  X    Vrs.  63 

suasion  of  the  method  of  least  squares,  into  the  framework  of 
some  formula  of  resultant  outlandish  mien ;  or,  as  the  very 
latest  method,  by  the  use  of  logarithmic  homologues.  The 
climax  of  this  sort  of  work  has  probably  been  reached  by  the 
labors  of  Ganguillet  and  Kutter,*  and  a  reaction  may  now, 
in  the  author's  opinion,  confidently  be  expected  to  set  in. 

The  lines  of  procedure  upon  which  the  thoughts  of  all  hy- 
draulicians  for  the  past  150  years  seem  to  have  been  fixedly 
set  are  probably  nowhere  more  radically  stated  than  in  the 
following,  culled  from  Weisbach's  "  Experimental- Hydrau- 
lik"  (Freiberg,  1855):  "  §  22.  The  Cohesion  and  Resistance  to 
Friction  of  Water  in  Pipes. — Water  does  not  flow  past  all  points 
of  one  and  the  same  cross-section  of  a  pipe  with  one  and  the 
same  velocity,  but,  on  the  contrary,  the  particles  which  flow 
nearest  the  surface  of  the  pipe  have  a  less,  and  those  more  dis- 
tant from  this  surface  have  a  greater,  velocity."  We  may 
profitably  stop  here  to  interject  that,  as  may  presently  appear, 
both  the  cohesion  and  the  resistance  to  friction  of  water,  as  it 
flows  in  pipes  of  the  sizes  ordinarily  used,  are  so  small  that,  in 
comparison  to  other  disturbing  causes,  they  do  not  have  a 
ruling  effect ;  and  that  practically  all  the  particles  of  water  in 
a  cross-section  of  measurable  thickness,  say  as  contained  in  a 
length  of  pipe  equal  to  half  the  diameter,  do  flow  past  a  given 
point  with  one  and  the  same  effective  velocity  in  the  direction 
of  flow.  But  a  hydraulician  seems  to  be  lost  to  truth  and  to 
the  search  for  truth  so  soon  as  he  has  made  the  false  beginning 
for  his  studies  above  quoted.  Once  possessed  with  the  fever 
for  formulae,  his  common  sense  seems  to  forsake  him.  But  for 

*  "Flow  of  Water  in  Rivers  and  other  Channels,"  Hering  and  Traut- 
wine  (N.  Y.,  1889,  John  Wiley  &  Sons). 


64  CARRYING    CAPACITY  OF  METAL    CONDUITS. 

150  years  have  they  all  spoken  as  above,  and  even  when  they 
have  recognized  and  stated  that  eddy,  circular,  spiral,  and  simi- 
lar motions  of  the  particles  of  water  have  a  great  influence  on 
the  mean  velocity  in  the  pipe,  they  have  universally  lacked 
the  courage  of  their  half-stated  convictions,  and,  satisfied  with 
such  a  bare  half-statement,  have  gone  on  to  compute,  as  there- 
tofore, wholly  on  the  basis  of  the  false  assumptions  already 
quoted.  Of  all  the  writers,  possibly  approaching  a  hundred,  in 
French,  German,  and  English,  known  to  the  author,  he  recalls 
one  only,  Dupuit,  who,  in  his  1865  edition  of  (l  Etudes  the"o- 
riques  et  pratiques  sur  le  mouvement  des  eaux  courantes,"  has 
spoken  fearlessly  upon  this  phase  of  the  question. 

But  let  us  continue  to  explore  the  beaten  track.  Says 
Weisbach,  following  the  quotation  just  given:  "This  varia- 
tion in  the  velocity  of  efflux  past  one  and  the  same  plane  of 
cross-section  has  its  cause  in  the  cohesion  of  the  water  per  se 
and  in  its  adhesion  to  the  pipe  surface.  The  body  of  water 
contained  in  the  pipe  may  be  likened  to  the  trunk  of  a  tree : 
just  as  such  a  tree-trunk  is  composed  of  annually  accumulated 
layers,  the  one  within  the  other,  so  is  the  water  flowing  in  a 
pipe  composed  of  a  lot  of  hollow  tubes,  which  similarly  sur- 
round and  contain  each  other.  The  outer  one  of  these  water- 
tubes  is  in  contact  with  the  interior  surface  of  the  pipe,  and  is 
totally  prevented  from  moving  by  reason  of  the  attraction  be- 
tween the  two,  and  the  rest  of  these  tubes  stick  together  by 
means  of  cohesion  or  agglutination,  so  that  no  one  can  move 
without  affecting  the  rate  of  motion  of  the  others.  In  conse- 
quence of  this  we  find  that  the  water-tube  which  is  next  the 
tube  which  adheres  to  the  pipe  can  move  along  but  very  slowly, 
while  the  third  water-tube  can  move  faster,  the  fourth  still 


V  =   TABULATED  C  X    Vrs.  65 

faster,  etc.,  etc.  We  find,  therefore,  that  the  body  of  water 
flowing  in  a  pipe  consists  of  concentric  tubes,  each  outer  one 
enveloping  the  one  next  within,  which  move  at  different  ve- 
locities, the  one  sliding  over  the  next  one,  in  such  manner  as 
to  cause  the  innermost  cylindrical  or  prismatic  kernel  to  have 
the  greatest  velocity  and  the  other  concentric  layers  to  have 
the  less  velocity  the  farther  they  are  from  the  centre,  or  the 
nearer  they  are  to  the  interior  surface  of  the  pipe."  All  of 
which  may  be  an  excellent  description  of  the  way  cold  molas- 
ses or  coal-tar  dribbles  along  through  a  pipe,  but  certainly 
does  not  apply  to  water. 

It  is  true  that  Weisbach  goes  on  to  say  that  in  smooth 
pipes  the  material  of  which  they  are  composed  is  of  no  con- 
sequence as  far  as  the  velocity  of  the  contained  water  is  con- 
cerned; and  in  rough  pipes  eddies  are  formed,  which 
naturally  increase  with  the  dimensions  of  the  protuberances 
or  depressions.  "But,"  says  he  "we  will  in  the  future 
always  assume  a  perfectly  smooth  interior  surface  of  the  pipe, 
and  need  therefore  take  no  further  notice  of  the  material 
differences  in  these  pipe  interiors."  Or,  in  other  words,  the 
pipes  he  considers  are  a  kind  of  pipes  not  met  with  in  prac- 
tice ;  and  as  for  those  met  with  in  practice,  they  need  be  no 
further  considered. 

Only  in  recent  years  has  it  at  length  been  recognized  that 
even  in  the  smoothest  of  pipes — such  as  of  drawn  glass,  for 
instance — eddies  and  a  spiral  or  vortex  motion  of  flowing 
water  will  take  place  so  soon  as  a  certain  small  critical  velocity 
is  exceeded ;  and  that  they  are  generally  present  in  the  prac- 
tical application  of  the  principles  of  hydrodynamics  now 
under  consideration;  to  which  the  author  now  begs  to  add 


66  CARRYING    CAPACITY  OF  METAL    CONDUITS. 

that,  in  his  present  judgment,  these  disturbances  of  rectilineal 
flow  are  of  overruling  importance  in  the  study  of  the  carrying 
capacity  of  pipes,  and  in  comparison  with  them  considera- 
tions of  varying  velocity  at  different  points  in  the  plane  of  a 
cross-section,  or  of  cohesion,  of  agglutination,  or  of  "  fric- 
tion," in  the  practice  of  the  civil  engineer,  must  be  relegated 
into  decidedly  subordinate  positions. 

Thus  Hagen,  one  of  the  most  outspoken,  clearest  intellects 
that  ever  graced  the  profession  of  the  civil  engineer,  in  his 
"  Untersuchungen  uber  die  Gleichformige  Bewegung  des 
Wassers  "  (Berlin,  1876),  and  in  his  "  Handbuch  der  Wasser- 
baukunst  "  (Berlin,  1869),  vol.  I.  p.  169,  repeatedly  calls 
attention  to  the  commotion  to  be  observed  in  water  flowing 
in  smooth  experimental  channels,  or  through  glass  tubes,  by 
mixing  sawdust  or  amber-dust  with  the  water;  and  to  the 
fact  that  there  can  therefore  be  no  assumption  of  rectilineal 
motion  in  any  ordinary  water-channel.  Finally,  Prof.  Osborne 
Reynolds,  in  Trans,  of  the  Royal  Society,  1883,  demon- 
.strated  the  fact  of  a  critical  velocity  in  pipes,  below  which 
right-line  motion  might  be  assumed,  but  above  which  it 
became  absurd  to  assume  it,  and  showed  that  in  fact  it  existed 
in  scarcely  any  of  the  cases  with  which  the  civil  engineer, 
that  is  to  say,  the  reader  for  whose  consideration  this  is 
written,  has  to  deal.  Notwithstanding  all  this,  even  these 
two  experimenters  have  gone  on,  hoping  against  hope,  and 
have  endeavored  to  evolve  some  simple  law  for  the  velocity 
of  water  flowing  through  a  pipe. 

Most  computers  of  formulae  for  the  flow  of  water  in  pipes 
have  assumed,  or  constructed,  a  certain  general  form  of 
formula,  and  have  then  confined  their  computations  to  the 


V  =   TABULATED  C  X    Vrs.  6/ 

determination  of  one  or  more  coefficients  believed  to  be  con- 
stant. Their  general  form  has  been  founded,  or  has  been 
thought  by  its  makers  to  be  founded,  on  sound  reasoning,  in 
itself  based,  however,  on  certain  hydraulic  assumptions;  but 
good  writers  like  Merriman  *  or  Ritter  f  have  not  hesitated, 
nevertheless,  to  call  these  formulae  empirical. 

Thus  the  form  of  the  Che"zy  monomial  formula,  and  of 
Prony's  or  more  properly  Girard's  binomial  formula,  are  each 
founded  on  reasoning  based,  the  one  upon  an  assumed  mode 
of  motion  of  the  water  in  the  pipe,  J  the  other  upon  a  consid- 
eration of  the  results  of  experiments  by  Coulomb  on  the 
resistance  of  water  to  bodies  passing  over  or  through  it, 
which  was  then  supposed  to  be  an  analogous  case  to  that  of 
the  body,  the  pipe,  standing  still,  and  the  water  moving.  § 
And  the  host  of  writers  who  have  accepted  either  of  these 
forms  of  formula  have  for  the  greater  part  confined  their 
attention  to  evolving  laws  of  variation  of  the  one  or  two 
coefficients  included  in  the  formulae.  But  no  refinement  of 
its  coefficient,  or  of  laws  of  the  variation  of  such  a  coefficient, 
even  if  they  could  be  found,  will  ever  convert  an  empirical 
formula  into  an  expression  of  natural  law.  Wherefore,  recog- 
nizing the  empirical  nature  of  the  Ch£zy  and  of  the  Girard 
form  of  formula,  and  recognizing  the  futility  of  all  attempts 
at  a  determination  of  a  law  to  express  the  variation  of  the 

*Merriman's  "A  Treatise  on  Hydraulics"  (N.  Y.,  1895),  p.  217. 

f  Ritter,  "  Lehrbuch  d.  Ingenieur-Mechanik"  (Hanover,  1876),  p.  481. 

JSee  P.  S.  Girard,  "Rapport  sur  le  Pro  jet  Generale  du  Canal  de 
1'Ourcq"  (1803),  p.  33,  or  Hagen;  "  Untersuchungen,"  etc.  (Berlin,  1876), 
p.  89;  or  Merriman's  "A  Treatise  on  Hydraulics"  (N.  Y.,  1895),  p.  215. 

§See  P.  S.  Girard  in  "Mem.  de  1'Institut  de  France,"  1813,  1814,  and 
1815.  p,  253,  Also  claimed  as  Girard's  invention,  in  the  1803  Rapport,  and 
so  admitted  by  Prony  and  others. 


68  CARRYING    CAPACITY   OF  METAL    CONDUITS. 

coefficients  contained  in  these  formulae,  other  writers  have 
attempted  by  the  method  of  least  squares  to  discover  other 
forms  of  formula;  fine  examples  of  which  kind  of  work  may 
be  seen  in  the  writings  of  Hagen,  and  of  Prof.  Unwin,* 
already  referred  to. 

Notwithstanding  all  this  work,  very  little  has  been  accom- 
plished towards  ascertaining  any  law  of  flowing  water,  prop- 
erly so  named,  in  the  150  years  of  experiment  and  study 
since  1750,  whether  the  investigations  be  confined  to  pipes  or 
extended  to  open  channels  and  rivers  as  well.  We  have 
experiments  ranging  from  those  on  the  flow  through  pipes 
1/8  in.  and  less  in  diameter,  up  to  gaugings  of  the  Amazon 
and  of  the  Mississippi,  but  all  classes  of  channels  elude  con- 
formity to  a  recognizable  law  of  flow. 

Those  on  exceedingly  small  pipes,  or  on  very  slow  veloci- 
ties in  larger  channels,  more  nearly  disclose  a  regular  mode  of 
motion,  as  might  be  expected;  and  it  is  found,  may  be 
represented  by  a  formula  of  the  following  form  : 

v  =  cr  s  ; 
while  the  Che"zy  form  is 

v  =  c  Vrs  ; 
and  the  Girard  form, 

av  +  bv*  —  rs  ; 
and  other  tested  forms  are  : 

av31  —  rs, 


av  — 
av*  +  bvy  =  rs, 


*See  article  in  "  Industries"  (Manchester,  1886),  by  Prof.  W.  C.  Unwin. 


V=   TABULATED  c  X    Vrs.  69 

( a  +  — ) —  =  rs,         (Darcy  form.) 


dl2g 

av* 

v* 


(Prof.  Reynolds'  form, 
omitting    the    term    to 
denote  effect  of  temper 
ature.) 

In  all  of  which  a,  b,  and  c  are  coefficients ; 
v  is  the  mean  velocity ; 
s  is  the  fall,   divided  by  the   length,   or  the 

slope ; 

r  is  the  area  divided  by  the  wetted  perimeter ; 
d  is  the  diameter  of  the  pipe  ;  and 
x  and  y  are   indices  to  be   determined  from 

the  results  of  experiments. 

As  before  stated,  the  climax  of  striving  for  a  law  and 
swallowing  a  monstrosity  is  perhaps  reached  when  it  is  sup- 
posed that  empiricism  can  gain  anything  by  the  use  of  a 
formula,  or  that  nature  can  be  observed  to  work  according  to 
a  law,  whose  expression  is,  that 

.    b       c 


v  = 


-  Vrs ;   the  Kutter  formula, 


in  which,  after  all,  the  coefficient  is  not  a  constant,  nor  a 
variable  of  r  or  of  s,  but  must  be  given  one  of  eleven  values 
depending  on  the  estimated  rugosity  of  the  channel. 


?O  CARRYING    CAPACITY  OF  METAL    CONDUITS. 

The  extent  to  which  the  worship  of  such  false  idols  and 
the  hope  of  salvation  through  formulae  can  go  is  perhaps  best 
illustrated  by  this  extract  relating  to  their  use : 

11  At  first,  the  authors  of  the  Kutter  formula  divided  all 
possible  cases  into  classes  or  categories  (as  did  Darcy  and 
Bazin),  and  suggested  six  different  values  for  the  coefficient 
of  roughness  n,  beginning  with  smooth  cement  or  planed 
boards,  and  ending  with  streams  the  beds  of  which  were 
covered  with  detritus  and  aquatic  plants.  Later  these  six 
classes  were  given  up.  The  advantages  of  this  new  formula 
were  quickly  grasped  by  the  engineering  profession,  and  it 
gradually  supplanted  the  old  formulas  for  general  use. 

"  In  recent  years,  however,  through  the  further  develop- 
ment of  engineering  science,  the  demand  for  greater  refine- 
ments, for  greater  economy  in  getting  better  results  with  less 
expenditure  of  money,  has  put  the  Kutter  formula  in  a 
similar  position  to  that  occupied  by  the  Chezy  formula  thirty 
years  ago.  The  coefficient  n,  which  was  first  considered  to 
be  a  constant  quantity,  and  which  roughly  can  be  considered 
as  such,  is  also  found  to  vary,  though  between  much  smaller 
limits  than  the  original  coefficient  c. 

"To  illustrate  this  statement  by  the  simile  of  a  decimal 
fraction,  suppose  the  Ch£zy  formula  gave  results  that  could 
safely  be  expressed  by  units  only,  the  greater  refinement  of 
the  Kutter  formula  gave  results  which  could  be  safely  ex- 
pressed in  tenths  of  a  unit.  At  the  present  time  we  seem  to 
be  in  need  of  a  formula  which  will  give  us  safe  results  in 
hundredths  of  a  unit.  Gaugings  are  being  made  with  greater 
precision.  It  is  more  necessary  to-day  that  watercourses 
and  pipe-1-ines  should  give  the  greatest  discharges  with  the 


V=   TABULA  TED  CX    Vrs.  Jl 

least  possible  outlay  t  of  money.  Works  built  in  recent  years 
on  the  assumption  (continuing  to  use  the  above  simile)  that 
accuracy  up  to  tenths  of  a  unit  was  sufficient,  have  in  more 
than  one  case  disastrously  affected  invested  capital." 

Invested  capital,  and  capital  about  to  be  invested,  is  no 
doubt  exposed  to  many  vicissitudes,  hence  is  proverbially 
fearful  and  on  guard.  But  it  can  take  care  of  hostile  designs 
upon  it,  if  it  be  not  led  astray  by  volunteer  friendship's  offer- 
ings such  as  these. 

None  of  the  formulae  above  written,  or  forms  of  formulae, 
have  been  found  satisfactory.  None  represent,  or  can  by 
twist  and  turn  of  coefficients  or  of  indices  be  made  safely  to 
represent  the  cases  of  flow  for  which  they  were  designed. 
They  will  serve  and  can  be  made  to  fit  a  few  cases,  but 
multiplication  of  experiments  invariably  leaves  the  formula 
incompetent  to  represent  the  variations  shown  by  experi- 
ment.* 

But  out  of  all  this  turmoil  and  crash  of  worlds  of  compu- 
tation has  remained,  with  perhaps  least  tarnished  of  reputa- 
tions, because  of  modest  demeanor  and  pretensions,  and  as 

*  See  Unwin's  article  in  "  Industries  "  (Manchester,  1886);  or  the  present 
author,  in  Tr.  Am.  Soc.  C.  E.,  July  1896,  p.  298,  which  shows  that  GO,  or 
rugosity,  in  the  Kutter  formula  would  be  given  widely  different  values  in 
the  same  pipe  by  using  experiments  at  one  or  another  velocity  in  the  same 
pipe  to  compute  it, — a  veritable  reductio  ad  absurdum. 

See  many  others,  almost  all  articles  on  the  flow  of  water  in  pipes  or  in 
canals,  to  the  same  general  effect.  Some  excellent  work  exposing  the 
falsity  of  the  assumptions  on  which  these  formulae  are  founded,  and  their 
consequent  failure  to  portray  the  discharge  of  large  rivers,  may  be  read 
in  Tr.  Am.  Soc.  C.  E.,  Nov.  1895,  p.  347,  the  magnificent  article  by  Wm. 
Starling,  M.  Am.  Soc.  C.  E.,  on  "The  Discharge  of  the  Mississippi  River." 
See  also  the  discussion  on  this  paper  notably  that  of  C.  McD.  Townsend, 
M.  Am.  Soc.  C.  E.,  in  the  same  Transactions,  July  1896,  p.  336. 


?2  CARRYING    CAPACITY   OF  METAL    CONDUITS. 

a  convenience  in  the  classification  of  results,  if  good  for 
nothing  else,  the  generally  accepted  Chezy  formula — a  sort 
of  survival  of  the  fittest.  Of  course  its  coefficient  must  have 
a  wide  range  of  values  to  cause  it  to  be  applicable  to  the 
many  cases  in  which  engineers  have  occasion  to  use  it;  and 
it  is  also  beginning  to  be  recognized  that  every  engineer  had 
better  find  out  from  experiment  his  own  particular  quota  of 
coefficients,  applicable  to  his  own  particular  cases.  Nor  need 
he  bother  himself  to  go  further  and  attempt  to  evolve  a  law 
of  variation  for  the  coefficients  themselves.  It  does  not  make 
the  computed  coefficients  any  clearer  or  easier  of  use  to  hide 
them  under  the  form  of  the  unknown  quantity  of  an  addi- 
tional formula.  Better  it  is  to  let  them  remain  in  the  light 
of  day,  without  change,  other  than  to  have  them  properly 
arranged  and  marshalled  in  the  ranks  of  a  well-designed 
table. 

On  account  of  such  thoughts  as  these  the  author  has 
chosen  to  represent  the  results  of  the  115  experiments  in 
form  of  two  tables  of  coefficients  appurtenant  to  the  Che'zy 
formula. 

It  is  a  singular  circumstance  that  the  origin  of  two  of  the 
best-known  empirical  formulae  used  by  civil  engineers  should 
be  so  shrouded  in  mystery  as  is  that  of  the  Chezy  formula 
for  the  flow  of  water  in  channels  and  that  of  the  Gordon 
formula  for  the  strength  of  columns. 

To  state  who  Gordon  was,  and  to  give  the  origin  and  first 
appearance  in  print  of  the  Gordon  formula,  would  form  a 
fitting  prize  problem  for  engineering  students. 

As  regards  the  history  of  the  Che'zy  formula,  research 
shows  it  to  be  quite  interesting. 


V  =   TABULATED  C  X    Vrs  73 

It  is  found  in  an  embryonic  condition  in  a  book  by  Albert 
Brahms  on  "  Dike  and  other  Hydraulic  Constructions,"  of 
which  the  preface  is  dated  1757,  though  some  of  the  plates 
are  dated  as  early  as  1753.  Brahms  seems  to  have  been  a 
country  surveyor  in  one  of  the  small  German  principalities  of 
his  time,  spurred  on,  perhaps,  to  the  work  under  considera- 
tion, by  the  prize  offered  by  the  Berlin  Academy  in  1750, 
above  referred  to.  He  explains  that  while  a  sphere  placed 
on  an  inclined  plane  would  move  with  constantly  accelerated 
velocity,  water  flowing  in  an  inclined  channel  moves  with  a 
uniform  velocity,  because  the  resistances  counterbalance  the 
acceleration.  He  also  says  that  the  velocities  are  as  the 
square  roots  of  the  slopes,  and  that  "  the  values  of  friction 
at  equal  slopes  of  water  surface  are  to  each  other,  in  case  of 
open  flowing  waters,  as  the  areas  wetted  by  the  water  are  to 
the  quantities  that  flow  over  them."  He  also  gives  the 
depths,  velocity,  and  slopes  of  two  rivers,  so  that  Hagen  *  is 
enabled  to  compute  in  1876  that  Brahms  meant  that 

v  =  97.6  Vrs. 

Brahms  himself  does  not  give  any  formula. 

In  1769  Perronet  and  Chezy  were  appointed  to  report  on 
the  proposed  Canal  de  1'Yvette,  projected  to  bring  water 
into  Paris;  and  in  1775  Chezy  made  a  report  on  this  canal, 
which  he  addressed  to  Perronet,  and  which  has  never  been 
printed,  but  was  deposited  with  the  manuscript  collection  of 
the  Ecole  des  Ponts  et  Chaussees.f 

This  report  is  said  to  contain  the  original  Ch£zy  formula. 

*  "  Untersuchungen,"  etc.  (Berlin,  1876). 

f  Girard,  "  Rapport  sur  le  Projet  Generate  du  Canai  de  1'Ourcq,"  1803, 
p,  33,     Also,  Prony,   "Recherches  Physico-MathSmatiques  "  (1804),  p.  iv. 


74  CARRYING    CAPACITY  OF  METAL    CONDUITS. 

Girard  states  it  twice — once  in  the  "  Rapport  "  already 
referred  to,  when  the  conclusion  reached  is  that  the  veloci- 
ties are  proportional  to  Vs\  and  again  in  "  Mem.  de  1'Institut 
de  France  "  (1813,  1814,  and  1815),  p.  251,  when  he  gives  it 
as  sa  =  cpv*,  or  v  =  c  Vrs.  Girard  also  states  that  Bossut 
applied  the  Chezy  formula  to  the  flow  of  water  in  pipes, 
though  Bossut  *  does  not  appear  to  have  given  Chezy  any 
credit  for  his  formula.  In  fact  Girard  and  many  others  of 
those  times  do  not  value  it,  but  think  more  of  the  binomial 
form,  derived  by  Girard  from  the  experiments  of  Coulomb 
on  the  friction  of  bodies  over  or  through  water.  But  Eytel- 
wein,f  the  great  German  hydraulician,  placed  himself  on  the 
side  of  the  Chezy  form  of  formula,  so  that  to  this  day  it  is 
called  in  Germany  the  Ch£zy-Eytelwein  formula,  and  of  late 
years  it  has  become  popular,  and  is  known  as  the  Ch£zy  for- 
mula in  France,  England,  and  America.  J 

A  comprehensive  view  of  this  whole  subject  can  only  be 
got  from  the  joint  experience  of  experiments  conducted,  and 
of  many  books  read.  It  does  not  yield  either  to  the  treat- 
ment of  the  student  and  votary  of  book  lore,  nor  to  the  con- 
tracted view  of  the  reader  of  only  one  book.  To  those  fitted 
by  experience,  it  is  submitted  that  no  form  of  formula  yet 
proposed  for  the  discharge  of  water  flowing  in  a  pipe  or 
channel  properly  approximates  to  the  results  of  nature  or  of 
experiment. 

The  reason  why  these  150  years  of  the  world's  work  on 
these  lines  has  been  so  fruitless  of  proper  results  is,  in  the 

*  Bossut,    "Traite   Theorique    et    Experimental   d'Hydrodynamique," 
(Paris,  1795),  vol.  11.  p.  143. 

f  "  Handbuch  der  Mechanik  und  Hydraulik  "  (Berlin,  1801). 
i  See  Note  D. 


PLATE  XIII. 


AM  TO  INK     ClIKXV  ,  [ngenieu 
no   a  Chalons  s/in  a 7.1 8. 


PORTRAIT  OF  CHEZY,  FROM  BIOGRAPHIE  CHALONNAISE,  D'AMEDEE  LHOTE. 

[Facing  page  74.} 


V  =  TABULATED  c  X    Vrs.  75 

author's  opinion,  not  far  to  seek.  As  no  stream  can  rise 
above  its  source,  so  no  formula  founded  on  error  can  hope 
to  attain  truthful  results.  Nearly  all  work  done  to  date  has 
been  based  on  considerations  of  friction,  or  of  resistances  to 
sliding  motion,  viscosity,  etc.  It  is  now  submitted  to  the 
profession,  and  to  savants  as  well,  that  the  time  has  come 
when  the  stone  which  was  rejected  of  the  builders  should 
become  the  head  of  the  corner.  These  vortex  and  other 
circular  or  spiral  motions  in  flowing  water  are  presented,  not 
exactly  as  the  chief  resistances  to,  but  say  diversions  from 
or  annulments  of,  the  action  of  gravity  in  the  case  of  flowing 
water.  We  can  gain  an  idea  of  them  by  watching  the  action 
of  small  particles  contained  in  flowing  water  and  of  the  same 
specific  gravity,  or  of  coloring  matter  injected  into  water,  or 
of  clouds  of  dust  carried  along  in  air-currents.  A  single 
particle,  or  a  whirl  of  particles,  of  water  strikes  the  side  or 
bottom  of  the  channel,  is  reflected,  as  a  billiard-ball  is 
reflected  from  its  cushion,  perhaps  crosses  over,  is  reflected 
again,  and  in  this  way  the  whirl  or  the  particle  moves  at  an 
unknown  velocity  in  the  direction  of  the  axis  of  the  channel. 
All  this  has  been  said  scores  of  times,  but  following  it,  the 
routine  method  of  thought  has  nevertheless  been  pursued  in 
a  vain  attempt  to  get  truth  out  of  error,  figs  from  thistles,  a 
true  formula  out  of  the  false  assumption  of  mere  frictional 
resistances  to  flow. 

Let  us  be  honest  enough  to  acknowledge  that  these 
irregular  vortex  and  eddying  motions  in  and  of  flowing  water 
are  ordinarily  its  principal  features,  and  that  their  general 
determination  or  evaluation  in  a  formula  is  beyond  human 
power.  In  other  words,  let  the  word  be  uttered:  There  is 


76  CARRYING    CAPACITY  OF  METAL    CONDUITS. 

no  law  of  water  flowing  in  pipes  and  other  channels,  be  they 
-ever  so  smooth,  that  can  be  expressed  in  a  simple  relation 
between  slope,  cross-section,  and  mean  velocity.  Also,  if 
there  were  such  a  law  for  smooth  pipes  and  channels,  it 
would  be  nigh  useless  in  the  practice  of  the  civil  engineer, 
who  is  forced  to  deal  with  channels  as  they  become  affected 
by  accumulated  slime,  rust,  tubercles,  etc.  Such  a  law  may 
exist  for  the  case  of  minute  threads  of  water  issuing  at  high 
pressures,  or  for  extremely  slow  velocities  in  such  capillary 
and  other  channels;  but  as  soon  as  straight-line  motion  has 
ceased  we  practically  enter  the  domain  of  chance  as  repre- 
sented by  the  law  of  averages.  Undoubtedly  chance  itself 
is  subject  to  law;  but  to  get  a  formula  to  represent  such  a 
law  of  averages — the  average  retardation  caused  by  convolu- 
tions, interaction,  and  reflection  from  the  sides  and  bottom  of 
the  channel,  of  whirls  and  of  vortexes  of  water — we  would 
have  to  invoke  the  aid  of  the  laws  of  probability,  not  of  the 
principles  of  mechanics. 

This  is  what  the  author  said  in  his  original  paper  on  the 
Venturi  Water-meter,  Tr.  Am.  Soc.  C.  E.,  Nov.  1887: 

"  The  reason,  I  will  suggest,  why  the  coefficients  belong- 
ing to  this  form  of  gauging  apparatus  are  so  nearly  uniform 
is  largely  on  account  of  the  close  similarity  between  the  con- 
ditions assumed  by  theory  and  those  found  in  actual  practice, 
regarding  now  the  state  of  the  liquid  as  it  passes  through  the 
venturi.  Here,  if  anywhere,  water  may  be  supposed  to  flow 
as  though  composed  of  the  traditional  '  filaments '  of  the 
school-books;  while  the  bubbiings  of  a  boiling,  seething 
caldron  are  but  little  more  violent  and  irregular  than  the 
motions  of  the  alleged  *  threads  '  of  water,  as  we  find  that 


V—    TABULATED  cX       rs.  77 

water  in  ordinary  practice,  and  as  it  flows  in  canals,  or  even 
in  the  ordinary  line  of  pipes,  or  in  tubes." 

That  is  to  say,  even  in  new,  smooth  channels  is  this 
failure  to  conform  to  straight-line  motion,  or  to  the  laws  of 
mechanics,  made  manifest.  We  are  first  called  upon  to  sur- 
render knowledge  of  what  takes  place  in  channels  as  they 
appear  in  use,  and  in  the  condition  in  which  their  behavior 
has  practical  value,  so  as  to  compare  them  when  they  are  all 
new  and  smooth,  only  to  observe  that,  even  when  thus  new 
and  smooth,  motion  through  them  is  so  irregular  that  it  will 
not  submit  to  computation  by  ordinary  laws  or  formulae. 

A  striking  example  of  this  is  furnished  by  a  comparison  of 
the  discharge  of  the  Sudbury  Conduit  supplying  Boston,  and 
that  of  the  last-built  Croton  Conduit,  supplying  the  city  of 
New  York.  These  two  works  were  built  under  practically 
identical  leadership,  and  under  precisely  similar  circumstances 
and  conditions,  the  one  immediately  after  the  other.  The 
same  engineers,  the  same  class  of  materials,  identical  methods 
of  construction,  distinguish  them.  Most  excellently  con- 
ducted gaugings  or  experiments  of  discharge  were  made  upon 
the  Sudbury  Conduit,  and  its  formula  of  discharge  was  com- 
puted when  it  was  new.  Yet  when  such  measurements  were 
repeated  on  the  newly  completed  Croton  Conduit,  only  94.5^ 
of  the  expected  results  were  attained.45' 

One  of  the  grossest  errors  in  the  consideration  of  flowing 
water  has  been  the  weight  given  to  the  so-called  scale  of  veloc- 
ities extending  from  the  bottom  or  sides  to  the  thread  of  the 


*  See   Reports   of  Aqueduct  Commissioners,  Croton   Aqueduct,  1887  to 
p.    101;    also   "The  Water-supply  of  the    City    of    New    York,"  by 
Edward  Wegmann  (John  Wiley  &  Sons,  N.  Y.,  1895). 


78  CARRYING    CAPACIl^Y  OF  METAL    CONDUITS. 

current  in  the  case  of  open  channels,  from  the  exterior  circum- 
ference to  the  centre,  in  the  case  of  pipes.  Even  graphical 
analysis  has  in  this  instance  contributed  to  a  spread  of  error. 
The  regular  way  has  been  to  draw  such  a  scale  of  velocities, 
say  a  parabola,  showing,  as  indicated  by  some  form  of  current- 
meter  which  measures  and  records  only  linear  motion  in  the 
direction  of  the  axis  of  the  channel,  the  axial  length  passed 
over  by  a  point  in  an  alleged  "  filament"  of  water  in  one 
second  of  time.  This  diagram  looks  handsome  enough,  and 
is  deemed  satisfactory  as  demonstrating  that  water  moves 
in  lines  and  faster  at  the  top  than  at  the  bottom,  etc.,  etc. 
But  suppose  one  were  to  continue  the  graphical  representa- 
tion thus  begun,  and  show  where  the  several  points  in  the 
first-second-of-time  parabola  would  be  at  the  close  of  the 
second  second,  at  the  close  of  the  third  second,  in  a  minute, 
in  a  quarter  of  an  hour,  or  still  later.  Would  there  not  result 
a  most  astonishing  diagram  of  the  positions,  at  the  close  of 
some  measurable  period  of  time,  of  the  original  particles  erst 
strung  along  the  correct  parabola  ?  Would  it  not  teach 
everybody  what  nonsense  it  is  to  suppose  such  a  form  of 
motion  in  flowing  water  for  an  instant;  to  make  of  it  the 
basis  of  reasoning  and  of  computation;  and  that  water  in 
truth  has  nothing  in  common  with  such  hideous  suppositions? 
Now  let  us  examine  in  the  light  of  an  experiment  for- 
tunately at  hand  what  really  takes  place  under  such  circum- 
stances. 

In  the  December,  1893  number  of  the  Tr.  Am.  Soc. 
C.  E.  is  an  article  by  G.  H.  Benzenberg,  M.  Am.  Soc. 
C.  E.,  on  the  "  Sewerage  System  of  Milwaukee  and  the 
Milwaukee  River  Flushing  Works."  This  able  engineer, 


V  —    TABULATED  C  X    Mrs.  79 

after  completing  the  discharge-sewer  12  ft.  in  diameter  and 
2534  ft.  long,  for  the  latter-described  works,  was  anxious  to 
know  its  volume  of  discharge  under  various  conditions.  As 
both  ends  of  it  are  submerged,  he  hit  upon  the  expedient  of 
measuring  the  velocity  of  the  water  through  it  by  injecting 
suddenly  two  ounces  of  red  eosine,  dissolved  in  one  quart  of 
water,  into  the  sewer  at  one  end,  and  noting  the  discharge  of 
this  colored  water  half  a  mile  farther  down-stream.  He  was 
enabled  to  do  this  with  accuracy,  because  "  the  color  was 
readily  perceptible  at  the  outlet,  and  was  never  distributed 
over  a  length  of  more  than  7  to  9  ft.,  being  about  1/3  of  \% 
of  the  length  of  the  tunnel,  the  centre  of  which  was  taken  as 
the  point  observed.  The  compactness  of  the  coloring  matter 
showed  that  the  velocity  was  practically  uniform  at  all  points 
in  the  cross-section  of  the  tunnel,  which  again  in  itself  was 
very  uniform  throughout  the  entire  length  of  the  tunnel." 
Nevertheless,  a  4"  X  6"  block  18  in.  long  was  found  spiked 
to  the  interior  on  inspection  of  the  tunnel  the  next  spring. 

Let  us  add  that  in  these  ten  experiments  of  discharge 
the  mean  velocity  ranged  from  3.9  to  6.9  ft.,  and,  that  noth- 
ing might  be  lacking  to  prove  the  ordinary  conditions  of  flow, 
that  the  computed  coefficient  in  v  =  c  Vrs  ranged,  with  the 
velocity,  from  122.7  to  I37-3-  Here  we  have  the  truth 
about  flowing  water,  and  a  truthful  representation  of  how  it 
flows.  A  body  of  it  equal  in  length  to,  say,  half  the  diameter 
of  the  pipe  stays  together,  though  riddled  and  seething  with 
internal  motion,  for  the  distance  of  half  a  mile,  or  for  from  6 
minutes  4  seconds  to  10  minutes  52  seconds,  and  no  doubt 
for  a  much  longer  space  and  time  in  actual  practice  in 
straight  channels.  Where  now  is  the  "  scale  of  velocities  "  ? 


80  CARRYING    CAPACITY   OF  METAL    CONDUITS. 

Where  the  "  filaments,"  and  their  "  friction  "  among  them- 
selves and  against  the  interior  of  the  conduit?  What  becomes 
of  all  the  formulae  based  on  the  existence  of  such  a  scale  and 
such  friction  and  filaments  ?  Let  us  answer  truthfully :  They 
are  left  without  a  reason  for  their  existence,  except  as  one  of 
the  simplest  of  the  lot  of  formulae  may  serve  as  an  aid  in  the 
classification  and  the  orderly  arrangement  of  experiments,  or 
of  gaugings,  that  have  been  made  in  the  past,  or  are  yet  to 
be  made. 

To  some  this  may  seem  a  negative  result.  To  the 
author  it  appears  like  positive  and  necessary  action  in  clear- 
ing the  ground  of  a  mass  of  encumbering  obstacles,  prepara- 
tory for  new  studies,  for  new  work,  and  for  true  progress,  in 
the  art  of  the  civil  engineer. 


APPENDIX. 


NOTE   A. 

IT  is  customary  to  call  an  engineer  engaged  in  this 
manner  by  a  corporation  a  Consulting  Engineer,  and  his 
knowledge  is  supposed  to  be,  and  his  rank  is  then  generally 
considered,  above  that  of  the  Chief  Engineer  of  the  corpora- 
tion. It  is  true  that  in  this  case  Mr.  Kuichling  was  engaged 
at  the  sole  instance  of  the  Chief  Engineer,  and  for  the  one 
special  purpose  that  has  been  named ;  but  Mr.  Kuichling  never 
was  an  Assistant  Engineer,  as  that  term  is  used  and  understood, 
and  as  some  have  supposed.  He  was  always  paid,  to  illustrate, 
on  bills  made  out  by  him  for  a  certain  number  of  detached  days'* 
service,  many  of  them  in  his  own  office  in  Rochester,  N.  Y.r 
and  for  his  travelling  expenses.  His  first  bill  was  paid  Oct. 
1889,  the  last  was  for  services  rendered  up  to  Aug.  14,  1890,, 
and  he  never  appeared  on  the  pay-rolls  of  the  company,  on 
which  were  paid  the  "  Principal  Assistant  Engineer/'  the 
"  Second  Assistant  Engineer,"  and  all  the  other  Assistant 
Engineers.  And  it  may  be  said  at  once  that  there  is  no 
occasion  for  any  one  to  plead  the  "  baby-act  "  in  Mr.  Kuich- 

ling's  behalf,  in  the  matter  of  anything  he  did  in  computing 

81 


82  APPENDIX. 

the  carrying  capacity  of  the  East  Jersey  Conduit  of  1889,  as 
there  might  be  had  Mr.  Kuichling  been  an  ordinary  Assistant 
Engineer  employed  upon  the  work.  He  was  offered  such  a 
position  in  the  summer  of  1890,  shortly  before  accepting  that 
of  Chief  Engineer  of  the  Rochester  Water- works,  and,  to 
accept  the  latter,  declined  it.  The  author  has  said  elsewhere 
that  with  apparently  more  than  usual  prudence,  and  as  a 
safeguard  in  a  novel  work  and  undertaking,  he  had  engaged 
Mr.  Kuichling  to  be  his  "  principal  assistant  in  the  design  of 
the  Newark  conduit  ";  and  the  phrase  has  perhaps  pardon- 
ably led  to  misconception  as  to  the  professional  relations  of 
the  parties,  which  were  not  under  discussion  when  the  quoted 
statement  was  written,  and  therefore  those  relations  were  not 
then  described  with  especial  care  or  precision.  The  above 
are  some  of  the  facts  in  the  case,  and  others  will  follow. 


NOTE    B. 

In  a  report  made  to  his  company,  but  which  was  widely 
published  in  January  1896,  the  author  said:  "Among  them 
(engineers  and  writers  who  had  been  deceived  by  the  Roches- 
ter report)  I  could  name  Hamilton  Smith,  Jr.,  Unwin,  Fteley, 
Kuichling,  and  myself  and  many  others,  all  of  whom  are  in 
print  or  otherwise  on  record  to  that  effect." 

To  these  five  names  may  now  be  added  those  of  J.  T. 
Fanning  and  Rudolph  Hering,  and  it  will  be  proper  to  give 
the  details,  in  this  discussion  of  a  scientific  subject  addressed 
to  engineers  and  others  interested,  of  the  statement  made. 

If  Hamilton  Smith's  "  Hydraulics"  is  justly  noted  for 
anything,  it  is  so  noted  for  the  exceeding  care  taken  by  the 


NOTE   B.  83 

author  to  cull  out  from  a  wide  range  of  accessible  records  of 
hydraulic  experiments  all  doubtful  or  inaccurate  ones,  and  to 
present  and  use  only  the  best.  The  Rochester  data  came 
quite  near  being  rejected,  it  is  now  curious  to  observe;  for 
on  p.  265  of  "  Hydraulics  "  we  read: 

"  Rochester  Main.  This  experiment  appears  to  be  en- 
titled to  considerable  weight,  as  the  quantity  was  absolutely 
measured.  It  is  a  pity  Mr.  Tubbs  has  not  more  fully  de- 
scribed the  methods  followed  in  obtaining  his  experimental 
data."  But  they  were  allowed  to  stand,  an  official  report 
being  no  doubt  considered  a  sufficient  voucher  of  correctness 
of  statement;  and  then,  again,  they  were, not  less  than  S$ 
in  excess  of  what  all  other  attainable  data  testified  at  the 
time,  and  it  evidently  was  assumed  that  no  harm  would 
result  from  using  them  merely  as  confirming,  not  as  increas- 
ing, the  statements  of  the  other  data.  So  that  the  conclu- 
sions of  the  work  quoted,  on  the  applicability  of  the  coeffi- 
cients for  the  discharge  of  new  cast-iron  pipe,  given  on  p. 
271,  to  the  case  in  hand,  are  as  follows: 

"  The  given  values  of  this  coefficient  can,  in  our  judg- 
ment, be  used  with  entire  safety  for  computing  the  flow  of 
reasonably  clean  water,  either  through  well-made  cast-iron 
pipes,  or  through  riveted  sheet-iron  or  steel  pipes,  where  the 
rivet-heads  do  not  form  quite  a  notable  portion  of  the  area. 
The  pipes  must  be  coated  with  a  varnish  of  asphaltum  and 
coal-tar,  or  some  other  preparation  equally  good;  the  joints 
must  be  smoothly  united,  and  any  curves  must  be  well 
rounded.  These  remarks  apply  to  diameters  from  I  to  8. 
For  diameters  less  than  I  the  given  values  of  c  are  probably 
somewhat  too  high  for  either  cast  or  riveted  pipe;  they  are 


84  APPENDIX. 

suitable  for  ordinary  lap-welded  pipe  which  has  also  been 
coated.  .  .  . 

"  Also,  that  the  coefficient  of  roughness  or  smoothness  A 
is  a  function  of  D  (diameter);  that  is  to  say,  a  degree  of 
roughness  which  would  greatly  lower  c  for  small  diameters 
would  have  but  little  effect  for  greater  diameters,  .  .  . 

"  For  values  of  D  (diameter)  or  r  larger  than  those  which 
are  given  for  the  same  degree  of  smoothness,  c  will  con- 
tinually increase  with  D.  For  a  riveted  sheet-iron  or  steel 
pipe,  with  its  inner  surface  properly  coated,  with  D  equal  20 
and  v  equal,  say,  5,  c  will  probably  have  the  very  great  value 
of  1 80,  or  perhaps  even  a  higher  value.  .  .  . 

"  The  author  has  had  a  large  experience  with  riveted 
sheet-iron  pipes  in  California,  and  has  found  no  difficulty  in 
protecting  them  both  from  rust  and  the  formation  of 
tubercles." 

Prof.  W.  C.  Unwin  of  London  is  a  well-known  authority 
on  hydraulics  and  other  branches  of  knowledge.  In  1886 
Prof.  Unwin  had  occasion  to  discuss  very  carefully  all  the 
best  experiments  on  the  flow  in  pipes  of  different  kinds.* 
He  selected  all  the  known  experiments  which  appeared  to 
him  to  be  above  suspicion.  Using  the  formula  then  deter- 
mined by  him,  which  is  of  an  entirely  different  form  from 
that  used  by  Hamilton  Smith,  the  discharge  of  the  Rochester 
conduit  would  be  in  the  vicinity  of  9  million  gallons  per  day. 
In  other  words,  though  developing  a  formula  of  different 
shape,  the  data  used  to  develop  it  were  practically  the  same 


*  See  the  article  on  "Hydromechanics"  in  the  last  edition  of  the 
Encyclopaedia  Britannica,  and  an  excellent  article  on  "  Formulae  for  the 
Flow  of  Water  in  Pipes"  in  "  Industries"  Manchester,  (1886). 


NOTE  B.  85 

as  those  used  by  Hamilton  Smith,  Jr.,  and  consequently  their 
results  are  nearly  identical. 

As  the  author  understands  it,  neither  Hamilton  Smith, 
Jr.,  nor  Prof.  Unwin  gave  great  weight  to  the  Rochester 
results  in  setting  up  their  coefficients.  This  was  probably 
due  to  the  Rochester  pipe  being  a  compound  pipe,  both  in 
diameter  and  in  material  of  construction,  and  because  its 
reported  discharge  was  in  excess,  that  is,  on  the  safe  side. 

But  had  its  reported  discharge  been  true  in  fact,  and  thus 
called  attention  to  the  smaller  discharge  of  that  kind  of 
riveted  pipe,  it  would  have  necessarily  commanded  the  close 
attention  of  these  conscientious  investigators. 

This  Rochester  conduit  had  been  reported  on  in  April 
1889  by  J.  T.  Fanning,  M.  Am.  Soc.  C.  E,,  and  A.  Fteley, 
M.  Am.  Soc.  C.  E.,  as  Consulting  Engineers  for  the  city  of 
Rochester. 

One  of  the  questions  especially  put  to  these  gentlemen 
was:  "  How  much  can  the  present  plant  be  expected  to  fur- 
nish? "  Also:  "  What  is  the  present  condition  of  the  con- 
duit and  reservoirs,  Holly  system;  and  incidentally  to  the 
above,  have  you  any  suggestions  to  make  as  to  changes  or 
improvements  in  the  present  plant  ? " 

In  their  answer,  and  under  "  Capacity  of  the  Present  Con- 
duit," a  computation  is  given  in  full  of  the  capacity  to  carry 
water  of  the  conduit,  and  its  wrought-iron  riveted  portions 
are  treated  exactly  as  are  the  cast-iron  portions. 

As  a  result,  these  engineers  report:  "  We  have  no  doubt 
but  that  these  conduits  (the  36  in.  and  24  in.)  are  now 
delivering  approximately  9  million  gallons  of  water  daily." 

And  again,   in  concluding  the  whole    report,   they    say: 


86  APPENDIX. 

1  The  quantity  of  water  which,  in  our  opinion,  should  be 
provided  to  supply  the  city  of  Rochester  adequately  for 
twenty  years,  or,  say,  until  1909,  is  about  30  million  gallons 
per  day.  Of  this  amount,  the  present  plant  can  be  expected 
to  furnish  9  million  gallons  per  day." 

Nevertheless,  as  will  have  been  above  noted,  this  plant 
was  then  supplying  only  somewhat  less  than  7  million  gallons 
per  day,  and  had  probably  never  carried  so  much  as  8  million. 
As  this  may  be  read  without  as  well  as  within  the  United 
States,  it  is  proper  to  add  that  Mr.  Fanning  is  the  author 
of  a  well-known  work  on  Water-supply  Engineering,  while 
Mr.  Fteley  is  the  well-known  Chief  Engineer  of  the  new  aque- 
duct and  other  important  works  supplying  the  city  of  New 
York;  both  gentlemen  of  high  rank  as  hydraulic  engineers. 

Mr.  Emil  Kuichling,  M.  Am.  Soc.  C.  E.,  was  in  1889 
well  known  as  a  hydraulic  engineer,  and  succeeding  years 
have  added  to  his  technical  reputation.  All  the  hydraulic 
work  done  in  Rochester,  N.  Y.,  since  1873  bears  the  distinct 
marks  of  his  mind  and  methods.  Those  who  know  the  two 
men,  Mr.  Kuichling  and  his  chief  and  predecessor,  cannot 
fail  to  note  Mr.  Kuichling's  authorship  in  the  technical  part 
of  the  Rochester  report  of  1877,  for  which  work  credit  is  also 
therein  given  him. 

His  engagement  by  the  present  writer  in  1889  has  been 
referred  to.  In  November  1889  Mr.  Kuichling  copied  into 
a  note-book,  by  request,  the  calculations  he  had  made  in  line 
of  the  design  of  the  48-in.  riveted  conduit  then  contemplated 
for  the  works  of  the  East  Jersey  Water  Company,  and 
this  note-book  is  to-day  at  hand.  The  last  revise  of  these 
computations  is  dated  Dec.  22,  1889.  January  29,  1890, 


NOTE   B.  87 

Mr.  Kuichling  began  to  use  a  set  of  computation-books, 
making  his  computations  in  these  books,  as  is  customary  in 
many  engineering  offices,  for  the  purpose  of  doing  away  with 
the  necessity  of  copying  computations  for  preservation.  The 
last  computation  is  dated  Aug.  n,  1890. 

In  no  line  or  word  of  any  of  these  books  is  there  so  much 
as  a  suspicion  expressed  that  the  alleged  9j-million-gallon 
gauging  at  Rochester  of  1876  was  subject  to  doubt,  and 
throughout  them  all  is  a  riveted  conduit  treated  precisely  like 
a  new,  smooth  cast-iron  pipe.  The  formula  used  is  that  of 

h  z/1-802 

Lampe:  s  =  —-  =  0.00039211  -77^-     The  result  was  a  pipe 

47  in.  in  diameter,  on  a  slope  of  n.8  ft.  per  mile. 

This  computation  the  present  writer  checked  by  the  use  of 
the  table  on  page  271  of  "  Hydraulics  "  by  Hamilton  Smith, 
Jr.,  and  the  result  quoted  was  changed  to  a  pipe  nowhere 
less  than  47^  inches  in  diameter,  on  a  slope  of  2  per  1000,  or 
10  56  per  mile,  which  is  a  trifle  more  than  called  for  by  the 
Lampe  formula;  a  formula  which  the  Rochester  gauging  of 
1877  was  then  supposed  to  have  confirmed,  established,  and 
even  exceeded.  The  author  states  it  as  his  distinct  and  posi- 
tive recollection  that  at  no  time,  and  in  no  way,  did  he  ever 
reduce  dimensions  of  the  conduit  computed  by  his  colaborer, 
but  to  a  trifling  extent  he  increased  them.  With  this  exhibit 
before  one,  it  will  come  as  a  shock  and  a  surprise,  to  say  the 
least,  that  Mr.  Kuichling,  in  a  newspaper  article  of  June  13, 
1896,  referring  to  a  questionable  method  of  computation 
printed  May  2,  should  say: 

"  This  method  was  first  applied  by  me  early  in  1890,  be- 
fore the  construction  of  the  Newark  conduit  was  commenced, 


88  APPENDIX. 

but  was  rejected  by  the  authorities  in  charge  of  that  work  on 
the  ground  that  no  precedent  for  this  method  of  computa- 
tion existed,  and  that  the  experiments  with  similar  pipes 
in  California  did  not  indicate  that  the  losses  would  be  as 
great  as  found  by  this  method. 

"  From  theoretical  considerations,  however,  I  was  satis- 
fied that  some  allowance  should  be  made  both  for  numerous 
alterations  in  diameter  and  the  projecting  rivet-heads  of  the 
round  seams,  and  hence  when  I  designed  the  new  Rochester 
conduit  I  adopted  the  principles  referred  to,  in  lieu  of  some- 
thing better." 

It  will  be  observed  that  the  above  statement  gives  as  the 
date  for  the  first  application  of  the  described  method  of  com- 
putation "  early  in  1890." 

In  another  place,  on  February  5,  1896,  Mr.  Kuichling 
gives  this  date:  "  in  spring  of  1890." 

On  p.  341  of  the  I9th  and  2Oth  Annual  Reports  of  the 
Executive  Board  of  Rochester,  N.  Y.  (to  January  I,  1896), 
we  have  this  statement:  "  No  exact  experiments  with  riveted 
pipe  of  such  plate  thickness  and  diameter  being  available  at 
the  time  (in  November  1890),  this  loss  was  computed  on  the 
basis  ".  .  .  .  then  follows  the  method  of  computation  now 
under  consideration. 

On  p.  35  of  the  1891  Report  Mr.  Kuichling  says:  "  In 
the  early  part  of  the  summer  of  1890,  about  14^  years  after 
the  completion  of  the  conduit,  suspicion  was  first  .aroused 
that  its  delivery  was  not  as  large  as  formerly. ' ' 

Against  these  dates  the  author  will  set  another  list  of 
dates,  more  relevant  to  a  decision  as  to  Mr.  Kuichling's 
responsibility  for  the  method  of  computation  adopted  in 


NOTE   B.  89 

1889  and  the  results  found,  and  indeed  conclusive  upon  the 
subject. 

The  last  revision  of  Mr.  Kuichling's  computation  was 
made  Dec.  22,  1889.  The  contract  for  n  million  pounds  of 
steel  plates  for  the  conduit,  which  fixed  the  diameter  of  the 
conduit,  was  closed  January  4,  1890,  and  bids  on  plate 
specifications  had  been  invited  about  Dec.  14. 

The  author's  recollection  is  distinctly  to  the  effect  that  he 
never  saw  or  heard  of  a  shred  of  that  method  of  computation 
printed  May  2,  1896,  before  February  6  or  7,  1896. 

Why  should  Mr.  Kuichling  have  made  such  a  computa- 
tion "  early  in  1890,"  or  "  in  the  spring  of  1890,"  when  it 
was  not  until  "  the  early  part  of  the  summer  of  1890  "  that 
"  suspicion  was  first  aroused  "  in  the  subject-matter  ? 

However,  even  if  he  had  applied  such  a  method  of  com- 
putation at  the  dates  he  gives,  it  would  have  come  too  late 
to  influence  the  order  for  steel  plates  closed  January  4,  1890, 
or  to  affect  the  diameter  of  the  conduit.  Had  he  applied  the 
method  at  any  time  before  January  29,  1890,  it  would  have 
been  his  duty  to  communicate  it  to  the  present  writer,  and 
to  have  recorded  the  method  in  the  book  of  copied  computa- 
tions, because  this  book  contains  both  accepted  and  rejected 
computations,  and  was  expected  to  contain  all  that  had  been 
made.  As  it  is,  it  contains  more  of  the  unused  than  the  used, 
without  disparagement  to  the  computer.  For  instance,  the 
last  triumphant  conclusion  reads:  "  Hence  expansion-joints 
appear  to  be  necessary"  ;  and  pages  upon  pages  are  taken  up 
with  manifold  forms  of  expansion  and  other  kinds  of  joints. 
In  one  place  is  committed  the  common  solecism  of  comput- 
ing the  loss  of  head  through  a  Venturi  meter,  as  though  it 


go  APPENDIX. 

were  measured  by  the  loss  of  head  between  the  up-stream 
end  and  the  throat — that  is,  as  though  it  were  merely  a  blunt 
nozzle — without  the  expanding  down-stream  end,  which 
restores  the  head  thus  only  temporarily  converted  into  veloc- 
ity, by  reconverting  velocity  into  head,  and  leaves  the  head 
at  the  down-stream  end  of  a  Venturi  meter  nearly  the  same 
as  at  the  up-stream  end  of  the  meter.  Many  pages  are  taken 
up  with  computations  relating  to  cast-iron  pipe. 

Enough  has  been  said  to  show  that  no  such  method  was 
concocted,  and  communicated  to  the  author,  before  January 
29,  1890,  and  there  is  no  trace  of  it  in  the  computation-books 
used  after  that  date.  The  probabilities  of  the  case  are  that 
this  method  was  thought  out  after  "  suspicion  was  first 
aroused,"  "  in  the  early  part  of  the  summer  of  1890,"  or 
later,  say  "  in  November  1890";  or  that  the  application 
stated  to  have  been  made  in  November  1890  was  also  the 
first  application  of  that  method.  It  was  never  communicated 
to,  still  less  rejected  in  1889  or  prior  to  July  or  August 
1890  by,  "  the  authorities  in  charge  of  that  work,"  or  by  the 
present  writer;  so  much  is  as  certain  as  both  documentary 
testimony  and  the  author's  distinct  recollection  of  events  can 
make  it. 

After  July  1890  it  was  too  late  to  make  any  changes  in 
the  dimensions  of  the  conduit,  no  matter  what  results  might 
have  been  discovered  at  Rochester,  or  methods  of  computa- 
tion evolved  in  consequence  thereof,  or  new  experiments 
made.  The  conduit  was  then  under  contract  in  all  its  parts. 

Was  the  author  justified  in  classing  Mr.  Kuichling  with  a 
number  of  able  hydraulic  engineers,  and  saying  that  Mr» 


NOTE  B.  91 

Kuichling  had  been  deceived  by  the  alleged  Rochester  gaug- 
ing of  1876,  the  same  as  the  others  ? 

Apparently  Mr.  Kuichling  would  prefer  not  to  be  so 
classed,  and  yet  to  have  it  appear  that  he  had  not  been  thus 
deceived.  Nevertheless  he  himself  says  that  "suspicion  was 
first  aroused  ...  in  the  early  part  of  the  summer  of  1890." 
Upon  the  above  facts  the  matter  is  left  for  the  deliberate 
judgment  of  the  reader,  and  especially  of  hydraulic  engineers. 

Although  the  list  of  names  of  engineers  first  given  has 
already  been  extended,  it  may  be  well  to  still  further  increase 
it.  Mr.  Rudolph  Hering,  M.  Am.  Soc.  C.  E.,  needs  no 
introduction  to  American  engineers.  As  one  of  the  trans- 
lators and  authors  of  a  work  dealing  especially  with  the 
subject  of  the  flow  of  water  in  conduits,*  he  had  had,  in 
1889,  especial  training  on  this  very  subject;  but  this  did  not 
prevent  him,  in  the  winter  of  1891,  during  the  discussion  on 
Mr.  Rafter's  paper, f  from  taking  most  radical  ground  in 
favor  of  the  smoothness,  hydraulically  considered,  of  large 
riveted  iron  pipe.  He  takes  the  lead  in  their  favor  in  the 
discussion,  and  calls  them  10$  to  35$  better  in  carrying 
capacity  than  new  cast-iron  pipes.  \  The  carrying  capacity  of 
the  Rochester  Conduit,  when  new,  he  computes  as  8,725,200 
U.  S.  gallons  per  24  hours,  and  then  excuses  himself  for 
having  arrived  at  so  small  a  result.  Says  he:  "  I  consider, 
from  the  above  independent  data  and  above  reasoning,  the 
original  quantity  (9,292,800)  most  likely  to  have  been  cor- 
rect.' 

*  Flow  of  Water  in  Rivers  and  Other  Channels  (New  York,  John 
&  Sons,  1889). 

fTr.  Am.  Soc.  C.  E.,  1892,  I,  40. 
JTr.  Am.  Soc.  C.  E.,  July  1896,  298. 


92  APPENDIX. 

He  has  no  mercy  on  poor  Mr.  Rafter.  By  the  vicissi- 
tudes of  American  municipal  politics,  Mr.  Rafter  had  just 
failed  of  election  to  the  office  of  Chief  Engineer  of  Water- 
works of  Rochester,  N.  Y. ;  it  was  just  then  the  rage  to 
abuse  that  gentleman  and  his  professional  work:  he  was 
being  crowded,  so  to  speak,  towards  the  goal  of  high  dis- 
charges for  all  kinds  of  pipe,  and  Mr.  Hering  chose  to  take  a 
leading  position  in  this  detestable  craze  and  game.  He  sees 
"no  justification  in  the  assertion  of  Mr.  Rafter  that  by  the 
recent  tests  considerable  doubt  is  thrown  upon  the  original 
determination  of  flow.  It  is  also  evident,  notwithstanding 
the  sentiment  expressed  in  the  last  sentence  of  his  paper, 
that  the  modern  views  as  to  the  value  of  c  have  in  the 
Rochester  case  rather  been  substantiated  than  otherwise." 

Will  it  be  believed  that  this  same  disputant  within  the 
short  space  of  five  years  could  turn  about  and  be  equally 
zealous  to  join  or  lead  another  such  body  of  men,  inflamed 
by  the  passions  of  the  hour,  in  the  sport  of  attempting  to 
crowd  another  member  of  the  profession  towards  the  other 
goal,  that  is,  in  a  diametrically  opposite  direction?  Yes, 
this  also  was  done,  and  Tr.  Am.  Soc.  C.  E.,  July,  1896,  p. 
280,  demonstrates  how  nothing  in  the  way  of  pipes  can  com- 
pare in  hydraulic  roughness  with  riveted  pipe,  and  that  this 
had  been  known  for  a  very  long  time,  and  should  have  been 
heeded  in  the  practice  of  all,  prior  to  1889,  to  say  the  least. 
Of  course  this  note,  which  is  considering  the  computation 
of  a  riveted  conduit  in  1889,  must  appeal  from  the  discussion 
of  1895  to  that  of  1891,  disputants  remaining  the  same;  and 
appealing  thus,  we  class  Mr.  Hering  among  the  noted 
engineers  who  in  1889,  and  even  as  late  as  1891,  considered 


NOTE   C.  93 

riveted  pipe  constituted  to  carry  as  much  and  more  water 
than  new  cast-iron  pipe,  other  things  being  equal.  He  too- 
had  been  deceived  by  the  Rochester  alleged  gauging  of  1876. 
Thus  have  been  cited  in  support  of  the  propriety  in  1889 
of  computing  a  large  riveted  conduit  as  though  it  offered  no 
greater  obstruction  to  the  flow  of  water  than  new  cast-iron 
pipe,  Hamilton  Smith,  Jr.,  Prof.  Unwin,  A.  Fteley,  J.  T. 
Fanning,  Emil  Kuichling,  and  Rudolph  Hering;  an  array  of 
engineering  talent  which  both  argues  and  demonstrates  the 
state  of  the  art  of  computing  the  carrying  capacity  of  riveted 
conduits  as  it  was  from  1877  to  1890  or  1891. 

NOTE   C. 

MEASURING  WATER. 

A  lecture  delivered  January  25,  1895,  before  the  students  of  the  Rensse- 
laer  Polytechnic  Institute,  Troy,  N.  Y. 

The  subject  which  I  have  selected  for  this  discourse  may 
be  called  "  Measuring  Water,"  or,  to  particularize,  the 
measurement  of  a  stream  of  water;  being  the  determina- 
tion of  the  cubic  volume  of  water  that  thus  passes  a  given 
point  in  the  adopted  unit  of  time.  For  most  purposes 
the  unit  of  volume,  when  using  English  measures,  has  been 
agreed  upon  in  favor  of  the  cubic  foot,  and  the  nations  of  the 
earth,  being  fortunately  agreed  upon  their  measures  of  time, 
have  settled  upon  one  second  of  time  as  the  unit  to  use  in 
measuring  water.  Nevertheless,  the  million  United  States 
gallons  in  twenty-four  hours  has  become  a  standard  for  city 
water-supply  practice  in  the  United  States,  and  an  acre  in 
area  covered  an  inch,  or  a  foot,  deep  in  a  month,  or  in  a 
year,  is  used  in  irrigation  practice.  But  I  would  warn  all 


94  APPENDIX. 

engineers  to  be  very  slow  to  add  to  the  number  of  such 
standards  of  measure  for  flowing  water,  and  to  abstain  from 
and  frown  down  such  absurd  standards  as  cubic  yards  per 
day,  or  tons  weight  of  water  per  day,  or  even  cubic  feet  per 
minute  (instead  of  second),  and  other  incongruities  found 
mainly  in  the  writings  of  British  engineers.  As  exercises  in 
the  art  of  arithmetic  for  children  such  computations  may 
have  value,  but  in  the  work  of  civil:  engineers  they  become  a 
stumbling-block  to  an  advance  of  knowledge,  and,  while 
unduly  magnifying  the  unessentials,  they  indicate  a  deplor- 
able lack  of  appreciation  of  the  essentials  of  the  art  of  the 
civil  engineer. 

Cubic  measures  do  well  enough  for  the  contents  of  vessels, 
or,  as  we  may  express  it,  for  dealing  with  the  science  of 
hydrostatics.  But  so  soon  as  the  water  to  be  measured  is  in 
motion,  or  so  soon  as  the  science  of  hydraulics  has  been 
entered  upon,  we  must  get  clearly  in  our  minds  the  idea  of 
rates  of  flow,  or  of  a  procession  of  such  cubic  volumes  passing 
a  given  point  in  a  certain  unit  of  time,  as  of  a  flow  of  so  many 
cubic  feet  per  second. 

No  such  idea  appears  to  have  formed  part  of  the  stock  in 
trade  of  the  ablest  engineers  in  ancient  times,  or  at  the 
beginning  of  the  Christian  era,  nor  probably  for  some  1500 
years  later.  Thus  Frontinus,  perhaps  the  earliest  writer  on 
practical  hydraulics  that  we  have,  has  barely  a  conception  of 
the  fact  that  some  streams  of  water  flow  faster  than  others, 
but  his  measurements  of  any  and  of  all  streams  is  based  solely 
upon  the  areas  of  their  cross-sections.  You  can  readily  see 
how  imperfect  is  such  a  conception  of  the  volume  of  a  flowing 
stream ;  though  we  must  admit  that  to  this  day  many  a  man 


NOTE    C.      XCALIFORH\X  95 


yet  struggles  with  the  similar  crudities  of  "  the  amount  of 
water  that  will  fill  a  6-inch  pipe,"  or  of  so  many  "  square 
feet  of  water  "  let  onto  a  water-wheel  and  the  like;  when,  as 
has  been  said,  he  might  as  well  attempt  to  define  the  volume 
of  a  cylinder,  or  of  a  parallelopipedon  by  giving  only  the  area 
of  its  base. 

A  stream  of  water,  then,  is  defined  by  stating  what  it  will 
produce  in  a  unit  of  time;  usually  the  cubic  feet  it  will  pro- 
duce in  one  second  of  time.  And  this  definition  could  not 
become  current  even  among  experts  until  considerable  atten- 
tion had  been  paid  to  measuring  the  velocity  of  running 
water.  These  measurements,  again,  had  their  origin  in  the 
search  for  the  numerical  values  of  velocities  of  efflux  through 
orifices  and  out  of  vessels  of  water;  in  the  establishment  of 
the  equation  known  to  all  of  you,  the  fundamental  equation  of 
the  whole  modern  science  of  hydraulics:  v  =  \/2gh. 

You  may  know  that  this  equation  was  first  published  in 
1732  by  John  Bernouilli  of  Basle,  Switzerland,  though  his 
son  Daniel  Bernouilli  was  credited  by  his  father  with  having 
furnished  an  independent  proof  of  the  same  relation  between 
head  and  velocity  of  efflux,  at  the  time,  and  in  1738  the  son 
published  his  own  celebrated  "  Hydrodynamica."  But 
these  two  founders  of  the  modern  science  of  hydraulics  had 
been  preceded  by,  and  had  had  the  benefit  of,  the  labors  of 
many  generations  of  earnest  workers  in  the  applied  sciences. 
If  I  may  be  allowed  to  quote  from  myself,  I  give  you  on  this 
point  an  extract  from  my  lecture  on  "  Frontinus  and  his  II. 
Books  on  the  Water  Supply  of  the  City  of  Rome,  A.D.  97," 
published  in  the  1894  number  of  the  Journal  of  the  Asso- 
ciation of  Civil  Engineers  of  Cornell  University:  "  We  who 


96  APPENDIX. 

have  been  educated  in  English-speaking  countries  have  been 
accustomed  to  consider  Lord  Francis  Bacon  (1561-1626)  as 
the  author  and  apostle  of  the  experimental  method  of  study- 
ing science.  But  modern  research  shows  him  to  be  entitled 
to  the  latter  credit  only  as  he  influenced  his  countrymen  of 
Great  Britain,  and  he  himself  made  no  experiments  of  any 
note.  For  a  hundred  years  before  his  time  lived  that  remark- 
able painter,  sculptor,  teacher,  and  engineer,  Leonardo  da 
Vinci  (1452-1519),  the  misfortune  of  whose  fame  it  has  been 
that  his  voluminous  works,  hidden  away  for  centuries  in 
private  keeping  and  exposed  to  manifold  vicissitudes,  found 
no  publisher  until  the  last  few  years;  and  have,  even  to-day, 
not  been  before  the  public  long  enough  to  be  used  by  modern 
writers  as  they  undoubtedly  will  be.  He  not  only  preached 
the  duty  of  study  by  means  of  experiment,  but  was  himself 
a  most  prolific  experimenter  and  a  teacher.  In  the  last- 
named  way  he  anticipates  Lord  Bacon ;  in  the  other  he  is  the 
forerunner  even  of  Galileo.'*  "  His  experiment  on  the  law 
of  falling  bodies  is  most  interesting  in  connection  with  the 
matter  we  are  now  considering.  He  used  two  long  boards 
hinged  together  like  the  leaves  of  a  book.  On  the  inside 
these  boards  were  smeared  with  tar  or  wax.  A  string-latch 
served  to  suddenly  close  them.  He  then  takes  a  small  tube 
filled  with  shot,  the  tube  having  nearly  the  same  diameter  as 
the  shot.  This  tube  is  held  vertically  in  and  over  the  angle 
of  the  wooden  book,  itself  set  up  vertically.  The  shot  are 
then  allowed  to  drop  out,  and  on  pulling  the  latch  are  caught, 
as  they  fall,  between  the  leaves  of  the  wooden  book,  and 
their  relative  distances,  as  they  are  falling,  are  impressed  on 
the  tar  or  wax  covering  of  the  boards. 


NOTE    C.  97 

"  Until  quite  recently  Galileo  has  been  supposed  to  have 
been  the  first  experimenter  on  the  laws  of  falling  bodies,  but 
here  was  this  great  engineer  and  teacher  busily  at  work  at  it 
100  years  previously.  However,  with  Galileo  (1564—1642) 
we  first  touch  the  modern  science  of  '  dynamics/  or  of  bodies 
in  motion.  Says  Ruhlman:  '  For  the  proper  founding  of  the 
science  of  dynamics,  or  of  the  science  which  treats  of  the 
causes  and  the  laws  of  motion,  were  requisite  talents  of  a 
degree  of  eminence  such  as  the  Lord  Almighty  called  into 
being  with  Galileo  in  the  year  1564.'  But  Galileo  had  no 
proper  means  for  measuring  time,  no  clocks  or  watches. 
Both  he  and  his  son  tried  to  make  a  clock,  but  did  not  suc- 
ceed. Instead  he  used  a  large  bowl  of  water,  having  a  small 
orifice  at  the  bottom,  and  compared  times  by  the  weights  of 
water  discharged  during  these  times,  using  his  finger  to  start 
and  stop  the  flow  of  water  out  of  the  bowl.  As  we  shall  see, 
it  is  a  reasonable  assumption  that  this  makeshift  of  a  clock 
became,  in  the  hands  of  Galileo's  pupils,  and  of  those  of  his 
pupil's  pupil,  the  suggestion  for  an  experimental  demonstra- 
tion of  the  laws  of  efflux  in  general. 

"  Castelli  (1577-1644),  the  pupil  of  Galileo,  was  a  Bene- 
dictine monk,  from  that  same  Monte  Cassino  which  saved 
Frontinus'  commentary  to  posterity,  and  he  first  showed  that 
the  quantity  of  efflux,  in  a  given  time,  depended  by  law  on, 
or  was  a  function  of,  the  depth  of  water  in  a  bowl,  such  as 
the  one  just  spoken  of;  that  is,  was  a  function  of  the  head. 
But  he  wrongly  stated  this  law,  making  the  quantity  vary 
directly  as  the  head.  It  was  his  pupil,  Torricelli  (1608-1647), 
the  inventor  of  the  barometer,  the  grandson,  in  a  professional 
sense,  of  Galileo,  who  first  proved,  in  1644,  or  only  two 


98  APPENDIX. 

years  after  Galileo's  death,  that  the  velocities  of  efflux  are  as 
the  square  roots  of  the  head.  But  this  still  furnished  no 
numerical  value  for  the  velocity  of  efflux.  Still  other  and 
yet  other  great  men  had  to  devote  their  lives  to  this  cause. 
Thirty  more  years  had  to  pass  by,  till  Huygens  (1629-1695), 
the  inventor  of  pendulum  clocks,  first  found  the  numerical 
value  of  the  acceleration  of  gravity,  commonly  represented 
by  the  letter  g  in  1673,  and  sixty-five  more  years  had  to 
elapse,  until  the  genius  of  the  two  Bernouillis,  father  and  son, 
in  1738,  or  250  years  after  Leonardo  da  Vinci,  finally  laid 
the  foundation  of  modern  terminate  hydraulics  by  writing  the 
equation  of  v  =  V2gh,  every  letter  and  character  of  which 
may  be  considered  the  contribution  of  and  a  tribute  to  the 
skill  and  perseverance  of  one  or  more  of  the  many  great  men 
I  have  named,  v  may  stand  to  symbolize  the  experiments 
of  da  Vinci  and  of  Galileo ;  2g  alone  would  suffice  to  immor- 
talize Huygens,  were  he  not  already  permanently  distin- 
guished by  his  invention  of  pendulum  clocks  and  other 
works;  h  may  serve  to  recall  Castelli;  and  the  square  root 
sign,  his  pupil,  Torricelli :  and  when  next  we  write  the  formula, 
let  us  remember  that  it  took  250  years  of  work,  not  to  speak 
of  another  and  a  preceding  250  years  or  m6re  of  speculation, 
to  put  it  upon  the  blackboard  of  the  world.  But  no  amount 
of  speculation  alone,  or  of  peripatetic  philosophy,  would 
have  produced  it.  To  do  that,  the  work  of  centuries  of 
earnest  men,  not  too  proud  to  dip  their  hands  into  bowls  of 
water,  and  to  experiment  in  hydraulics,  the  while  they  were 
wearing  mechanics'  overalls,  so  to  speak,  was  absolutely 
necessary. ' ' 

Men  of  this  stamp  have  followed,  since  1738,   in  rapid 


NOTE   C.  99 

succession,  and  were  hydraulic  observatories  endowed  with 
but  a  small  portion  of  the  wealth  that  has  been  devoted  to 
furthering  astronomical  recreations,  very  much  more  such 
work  would  have  been  done  up  to  the  present  time.  Indeed 
it  is  sad  to  consider  how  much  has  been  as  yet  withheld  or 
lost  to  the  world  for  the  want  of  endowed  hydraulic  observa- 
tories. It  was  Galileo  who  more  than  200  years  ago  deplored 
this  state  of  affairs,  and  declared  that,  strangely  enough,  he 
could  learn  more  of  the  movements  of  Jupiter's  satellites  than 
he  could  of  a  stream  of  water  on  the  earth  which  he  inhabited. 
But  working  in  the  best  way  they  could,  the  practical 
part  of  the  science  of  hydraulics,  and  the  art  of  measuring 
water,  have  been  developed  since  1738  by  many  earnest 
workers  in  this  field,  some  of  whom  I  will  name  in  the  order 
of  their  birth : 

Michelotti,  the  elder 1710  to  1777 

Brindley 4 1 7 1 6  to  1 772 

Che"zy 1718  to  1789 

Smeaton 1 724  to  1 792 

Bossut 1730  to  1814 

Du  Buat J732  to  1787 

Borda 1733  to  1799 

Venturi 1746  to  1822 

Prony 1755  to  1839 

Woltmann 1757  to  1837 

Michelotti,  the  younger 1764  to  1846 

Eytelwein 1 764  to  1 849 

D' Aubuisson 1 769  to  1 841 

Thomas  Young.... , 1773  to  1829 

Bidone 1781  to  1839 


IOO  APPENDIX. 

Poncelet 1788  to  1868 

Lesbros . 1 788  to  1 867 

Darcy 1803  to  1858 

Weisbach 1806  to  1871 

Francis 1815  to  1892 

and  by  Boileau,  Bazin,  Borneman,  and  a  host  of  others  still 
living,  as  well  as  many,  such  as  Pitot,  Cabeo,  and  others,  of 
the  years  prior  to  1738.  These  are  the  men  to  whom  we  owe 
the  present  state  of  the  art.  It  is  true  that  much  that  they 
have  done  has  become  nigh  useless  in  the  practical  pursuit 
of  measuring  water;  but  all  science,  all  knowledge  is  thus 
developed  with  the  accompaniment  of  a  great  waste  of 
energies,  somewhat  as  the  operations  of  nature  include  a 
waste  of  labor  and  of  benign  possibilities.  Thus  the  multi- 
tude of  experiments  on  efflux  from  vessels  and  through 
orifices  can  find  but  little  use  in  practice.  The  intent  seems 
to  have  been  to  so  study  efflux  as  to  deduce  its  laws  up  to 
the  point  of  being  able  to  meter  water  from  a  knowledge  of 
the  size  and  shape  of  the  orifice  and  the  head  acting  upon  it. 
Speaking  from  the  standpoint  of  the  practician,  this  has  not 
been  accomplished,  nor  is  there  any  present  outlook  that  it 
ever  will  be  accomplished.  Each  shape,  each  minute  varia- 
tion of  shape,  each  accompanying  circumstance  of  efflux, 
varies  the  coefficient  of  discharge ;  so  that  the  most  that  can 
ever  be  affirmed  is  that  a  precise  reproduction  of  an  orifice 
that  has  been  experimented  on  and  a  reproduction  of  the 
attending  conditions  will  reproduce  the  experimental  dis- 
charges. This  is  the  sum  total  of  our  knowledge  even  in  a 
case  apparently  so  simple  as  that  of  water  wasting  over  a 


NOTE    C.  IOI 

weir.  I  say  apparently  so  simple,  because,  as  long  known, 
the  latest  experiments  of  Bazin  have  clearly  shown  the  multi- 
plicity of  forms  according  to  which  water  may  proceed  to  spill 
over  a  weir. 

Returning  to  the  case  of  discharge  from  an  orifice,  we 
have  here  probably  the  earliest  method  devised  for  measuring 
water.  Frontinus,  who  wrote  A.D.  97,  describes  how  water 
was  metered  to  the  Roman  water-takers.  It  was  led  from 
the  aqueducts  to  a  group  of  cisterns  set  up  near  the  places  of 
final  consumption  of  the  water,  and  into  the  walls  of  these 
cisterns  were  inserted  bronze,  circular,  ajutages,  about  nine 
inches  long,  of  the  desired  diameter,  stamped  with  their  size 
and  the  name  of  the  water-works  superintendent  who  had  set 
them.  Two  specimens  of  these  ajutages  have  survived  the 
wrack  and  ruin  of  the  centuries  and  are  preserved  in  two  of 
the  Roman  museums.  Frontinus  knew  that  these  ajutages 
must  all  be  set  on  the  same  elevation,  that  is,  as  we  would 
now  say,  under  equal  heads,  to  cause  them  to  discharge  equal 
volumes;  but  to  show  you  how  crude  were  his  ideas,  and 
those  of  the  most  learned  of  his  contemporaries  on  these  sub- 
jects, I  quote  what  he  says  about  it:  "  In  setting  ajutages 
care  must  be  taken  to  set  them  on  a  level,  and  not  place  the 
one  higher  up  and  the  other  lower  down.  The  lower  one 
will  swallow  up  more;  the  higher  one  will  suck  in  less, 
because  the  current  of  water  is  drawn  in  by  the  lower  one.'* 
(Frontinus,  113.) 

Frontinus  also  knew  that  the  ajutages  must  be  set  with 
their  axes  at  right  angles  to  the  trend  of  the  current,  and  that 
they  would  discharge  more  and  less  than  the  ajutage  set  at 
right  angles,  if  set  inclining  with  or  against  the  current; 


102  APPENDIX. 

finally,  he  knew  that  a  large  pipe  attached  to  the  down-stream 
end  of  the  ajutage  would  carry  more  water  than  a  pipe  of  the 
same  diameter  as  the  ajutage,  attached  in  the  same  manner; 
and  a  law  of  ancient  Rome  prescribed  that  the  diameter  of 
the  attached  pipe  must  be  the  same  as  that  of  the  ajutage, 
for  a  distance  of  50  feet  down-stream  from  it.  But  with 
these  precautions  Frontinus  apparently  exhausted  his  means 
of  measuring  water,  and  the  resources  of  his  time,  to  the  end 
that  the  measurements  should  be  consistent  among  them- 
selves. His  unit  was  the  discharge  of  such  an  ajutage  5/4. 
of  a  digit  (about  0.907  inch  English)  in  diameter;  which 
he  calls  a  quinarium,  or,  as  we  would  say,  a  "  fiver."  For 
an  ajutage  of  double  this  area  the  discharge  becomes  two 
quinaria,  by  reason  of  such  double  area;  and  so  on,  even  up 
to  the  measurement,  by  a  cross-sectional  area  of  the  stream 
flowing  in  an  aqueduct,  of  the  discharge  of  that  aqueduct. 

Of  course  work  like  this  can  represent  only  an  embryonic 
state  of  the  art  of  measuring  water.  But  it  endured  for  yet 
1543  years,  until  Castelli,  the  pupil  of  Galileo,  saw  that  more 
water  was  discharged  out  of  a  hole  in  the  bottom  of  his 
water-clock  bowl  when  the  bowl  had  much  water  in  it  than 
it  did  when  the  bowl  was  nigh  empty,  and  published  his  ideas 
about  it,  as  we  have  seen,  in  1640. 

From  this  time  on,  especially  after  the  proof  by  TorricelH, 
only  four  years  later,  in  1644,  that  the  discharge  varied  as 
the  square  roots  of  the  head  of  water  on  the  orifice,  the  im- 
portance of  the  head  of  water  became  firmly  established. 
Frontinus  had  said  that  ajutages  should  all  be  on  a  level,  but 
it  is  not  known  at  what  level  he  set  them.  Old  orifices  for 


NOTE   C.  IO3 

regulating  and  limiting,  not  measuring  water,  used  for  irriga- 
tion purposes  in  the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth  centuries  in 
Italy,  had  the  ordinary  water-level  even  with  the  top  of  the 
rectangular  orifice.  In  1764  the  legal  measure  of  water  used 
for  irrigation  was  established  in  Modena,  as  the  amount  flow- 
ing out  of  a  defined  rectangular  orifice  under  a  defined  head, 
and  this  is  one  of  the  earliest  recorded  uses  of  a  fixed  head 
on  an  orifice  to  define  a  measure  of  water  in  irrigation  prac- 
tice. 

Long  before  this,  however,  it  had  become  customary 
among  the  workmen  that  had  charge  of  the  public  fountains 
of  Rome  and  of  Paris  to  measure  volumes  of  water  by  the 
discharge  through  a  circular  orifice  in  a  thin  vertical  plate;  the 
unit  in  Paris,  for  example,  being  the  discharge  through  an 
orifice  one  Paris  inch  in  diameter.  Belidor,  who  wrote  in 
1737,  says  (Archit.  Hydr.,  II,  366)  that  the  "  fountainiers  " 
were  not  particular  what  head  was  acting  on  the  orifice  so 
long  as  it  was  a  moderate  one.  Their  subdivisions  of  the 
water-inch  were  also  entirely  irrational  and  erroneous.  The 
first  one  who  attempted  to  determine  the  meaning  of  a  water- 
inch  in  fixed  measures  was  Mariotte,  who  lived  1620-1684, 
and  who  found  the  discharge  of  a  Paris  water-inch,  when  the 
head  on  the  upper  edge  of  the  orifice  was  I  "  ligne,"  about 
1/12  of  an  inch,  to  be  about  14  "  pintes  "  per  minute,  equal  to 
about  0.47  cubic  foot  per  minute.  The  Paris  inch  was  about 
6%  larger  than  the  English  inch;  and  with  Gallic  perversity 
the  Paris  "  pinte  "  differed  less  than  \%  from  the  U.  S.  quart. 

Belidor  notes  some  of  the  many  objections  to  this  mode 
of  expressing  a  definite  measure  of  flowing  water,  and  strove 


104  APPENDIX. 

to  improve  upon  it  by  substituting  rectangular  orifices  of 
uniform  height,  set  on  a  level,  but  having  varying  widths,  for 
the  circular  orifices  of  varying  diameter  used  in  his  time, 
whose  centres  or  bottom  edges  were  all  on  a  level.  The 
method  is,  however,  necessarily  beset  with  so  many  chances 
for  error  that  it  never  can  succeed  for  work  that  aims  at  the 
merest  rudiments  of  exactitude.  Again  and  again  in  the 
world's  history  has  it  been  attempted  to  introduce  it,  in  every 
case  by  uneducated  men,  or  in  crude  forms  of  society,  only 
to  reveal  its  manifold  imperfections  and  to  vex  and  encumber 
the  contracts  and  legislation  of  succeeding  several  generations 
before  it  could  be  got  rid  of.  The  miner's  inch,  gradually 
disappearing  in  our  Pacific  states  in  favor  of  the  cubic  foot 
per  second,  is  one  of  the  latest  examples  of  the  statement 
just  made.* 

The  reason  for  this  is  readily  seen  when  the  multitude  of 
dimensions  and  forms  of  the  measuring  apparatus,  each  one 
of  which  has  an  influence  on  the  discharge  produced,  are 
taken  into  consideration.  Whether  the  orifice  be  cut  out  of 
a  plate  1/16  inch  thick  or  1/32  inch  thick,  or  through  an 
inch  board  or  a  half-inch  board;  whether  the  bottom  of  the 
vessel  be  I  inch  or  3  inches  below  the  bottom  of  the  orifice, 
whether  the  orifice  be  filed  off  smooth  or  left  as  cut,  whether 
the  holes  be  punched  2  inches  apart  or  3  inches  apart,  and  a 
multitude  of  other  such  circumstances,  all  affect  the  resultant 
discharge.  The  one  thing  to  do  with  such  a  crude  unit  of 


*  See  a  Report  to  the  Montana  Society  of  Civil  Engineers  by  Prof. 
A.  M.  Ryon,  1894.  Also  Journal  of  the  Association  of  Engineering  Socie- 
ties, January  1895. 


NOTE   C.  IO5 

measure  for  flowing  water  is  to  get  rid  of  it,   and  this  is 
happily  being  accomplished  in  the  course  of  time.* 

Starting   with    the    Roman   attempt  to  measure    flowing 

*  So  long  ago  as  the  middle  of  the  fifteenth  century  there  was  at  least 
one  man  who  saw  the  defects  of  an  orifice  of  discharge,  as  a  unit  of  meas- 
ure, very  clearly. 

In  Leonardo  da  Vinci's  Manuscript  F  (Venturi,  Essai  sur  les  Ouvrages, 
etc.,  Leonardo  da  Vinci,  1797,  p.  20)  may  be  found  the  following  : 

CONCERNING   THE    WATER   THAT   MAY   BE   DRAWN    FROM   A    CANAL. 

The  quantity  of  water  that  discharges  from  a  canal  through  an  orifice 
of  a  given  size  may  vary  on  account  of  many  reasons  : 

1.  By  reason  of  the  height,  more  or  less  great,  that  the  surface  of  the 
water  of  the  canal  is  over  the  opening. 

2.  By  reason  of  the  more  or  less  velocity  with  which  the  water  of  the 
<;anal  passes  along  the  bank  in  which  is  placed  the  opening. 

3.  By  reason  of  the  sides  of  the  opening  being  more  or  less  convergent. 

4.  By  reason  of  the  thickness  of  the  frame  of  the  orifice  being  greater 
or  less. 

5.  By  reason  of  the  shape  of  the  opening  being  circular,  or  square,  or 
triangular,  or  lengthened  out. 

6.  By  reason  of  the  axis  of  the  opening  being  more  or  less  inclined  to 
the  direction  of  the  bank  of  the  canal. 

7.  By  reason  of  its  being  more  or  less  inclined  to  the  horizon. 

8.  By  reason  of  the  opening  being  placed  on  a  convex  bank  or  on  a  con- 
cave one. 

9.  By  reason  of  protuberances  or  depressions  in  the  bed  of  the  canal, 
opposite  to  the  opening. 

10.  By  reason  of  the  air  intermingling    or  not  intermingling  with  the 
current  of  water  that  discharges  from  the  opening. 

11.  By  reason  of  the  water  discharging  from  the  opening  freely  into  the 
air,  or  discharging  through  an  open  conduit,  or  through  a  closed  pipe. 

12.  By  reason  of  this  conduit  having  a  cross-section  greater  or  less  than 
the  orifice  of  discharge. 

13.  According  as  this  conduit  is  of  greater  or  less  length. 

14.  According  as  the  interior  of  the  conduit  is  smooth  or  rough,  straight 
or  curved. 

When  it  is  considered  that  this  was  written  before  the  invention  of 
printing,  and  before  Columbus  discovered  America,  it  becomes  a  marvellous 
exhibit  of  a  thorough  and  searching  analysis  made  merely  by  force  of 
genius  and  without  aid  from  the  teachings  of  hydraulic  science,  then  as  yet 
unborn.  ' 


IO6  APPENDIX. 

water  merely  by  the  cross-sectional  area  of  the  stream,  thence 
passing  to  the  mediaeval  way  of  measuring  it  by  the  number 
of  streams  one  inch  in  diameter,  under  some  small  head, 
which  it  would  produce,  thence  reaching  the  point  where 
these  small  streams  were  defined  to  act  under  a  given  head,  so 
as  to  regulate  the  affecting  circumstance  of  discharge  of 
greatest  importance,  we  have  at  last  arrived  at  the  modern 
method  of  defining  flowing  water  in  cubic  measure  per  unit 
of  time,  or  at  the  definition  of  cubic  feet  per  second. 

I  will  ask  you  now  to  distinguish  between  mere  computa- 
tions that  indicate  the  discharge  from  orifices,  through  pipes, 
or  in  channels,  from  instruments  and  methods  by  which  such 
streams  are  directly  examined  and  measured.  The  last  pro- 
cess alone  we  will  call  measuring  water.  It  may  also  not  be 
superfluous  to  ask  you  to  distinguish  between  forms  of 
apparatus  that  may  be  set  to  discharge  uniformly  certain 
given  quantities,  so-called  module,  as  likewise  not  included 
in  the  instruments  and  methods  to  be  used  for  effecting  a 
measurement  of  a  given  stream;  nor  to  ordinary  water- 
meters,  which  measure  volumes,  but  do  not  measure  rates  of 
flow.  But  I  shall  include  in  such  instruments  the  weir,  which 
may  be  reproduced  in  the  precise  form  used  to  establish  a 
given  weir  formula,  so  readily,  that  it  has  won  a  place  for 
itself  among  water-measuring  instruments,  something  that  the 
orifices  or  pipes  that  have  been  named  are  not  likely  ever  to 
accomplish. 

But  a  weir  measurement  is  only  a  reasoning  by  analogy 
from  the  recorded  results  of  measurements  made  over  a  like 
weir  into  some  measuring-tank,  so  that  at  the  foundation  of 
weir  measurements,  and  at  the  same  time  as  the  simplest  of 


NOTE   C.  IO/ 

all  methods  of  measuring  water,  we  have  the  measuring-tank, 
or,  as  we  may  call  it,  the  grocer's  pint  or  quart  measure. 
But  when  conducted  with  accuracy,  measuring  water  by 
means  of  a  measuring-tank  is  an  art,  to  be  learnt  like  any 
other,  some  features  of  which  may  now  be  illustrated. 

Tank  volumes  may  be  measured  in  two  ways:  either 
directly,  by  cubic  contents,  or  indirectly,  by  first  weighing  the 
quantity  contained,  and  then  computing  the  cubic  contents 
from  the  temperature  of  the  contained  water  and  from  its 
weight  per  cubic  foot. 

If  the  first  method  be  followed,  the  tank  must  be  built  on 
purpose  for  it,  extraordinarily  strong  and  stanch,  so  as  not 
to  change  in  shape  when  filled  with  water,  and  by  no  means 
to  leak.  If  of  wood,  the  wood  must  be  waterlogged. 
Levels  of  water  must  be  measured  with  a  hook-gauge  to 
thousandths  and  to  ten-thousandths  of  a  foot.  The  form  of 
the  measuring-tank  must  be  a  regular  one,  all  the  corners 
straight,  sides  without  warp,  and  all  linear  measurements 
must  be  determined  with  extreme  accuracy.  You  can  readily 
see  that  it  is  easier  to  use  a  tank  or  vessel  of  most  any  make 
and  form  and  to  weigh  the  contained  water. 

To  limit  the  lengths  of  time  during  which  the  stream 
whose  flow  it  is  desired  to  measure  discharges  into  the  tank, 
the  best  way  is  to  use  a  movable  spout  between  the  stream 
of  water  and  the  tank.  A  carefully  tested  stop-watch,  and  an 
assistant  to  cause  the  spout  to  discharge  the  water  on  a  given 
signal  into  the  tank  and  again  to  one  side  of  it,  will  determine 
the  length  of  time  during  which  the  tank  received  the  dis- 
charge to  be  measured  within  the  fraction  of  a  second. 
Large  movable  spouts  of  this  sort,  to  control  discharges  of 


108  APPENDIX. 

considerable  volume,  may  be  found  described  in  Francis* 
Lowell  Hydraulic  Experiments,  and  in  the  description  of  the 
experiments  made  with  the  Venturi  meter  in  the  1887 
volume  of  the  Transactions  of  the  American  Society  of  Civil 
Engineers. 

Such  measuring-tanks  are  the  very  simplest  forms  of 
water-measuring  apparatus,  so  simple  that  they  are  not 
thought  of  many  a  time  by  the  hydraulic  engineer,  whose 
head  may  be  filled  with  the  pages  upon  pages  treating  of  the 
cases  and  the  coefficients  of  discharge  given  in  the  text- 
books, but  duplicates  of  any  one  of  which  cases  are  so  seldom 
met  with  in  practice.  Whenever  a  small  stream  of  water  is 
to  be  measured,  one's  first  thought  should  always  be  the  tank, 
the  pint  measure.  When  that  is  not  applicable  it  will  be 
time  enough  to  turn  to  other  methods. 

One  such  other  method,  we  have  agreed,  shall  be  the  weir. 
Now  a  weir  may  be  looked  upon  in  two  ways:  as  a  hydraulic 
study  of  the  discharge  of  water  over  it,  and,  again,  strictly  as 
a  method  for  measuring  water.  If  the  first  view  be  taken 
into  consideration,  the  last  word  has  by  no  means  yet  been 
said  upon  the  subject,  and  the  latest  may  always  be  the  best. 
But  if  the  second-named  object  be  kept  in  mind,  we  have  in 
Francis'  Lowell  Hydraulic  Experiments  nearly  all  that  will 
ever  be  needed  upon  that  subject.  For  the  weir  experiments 
recorded  in  that  classic  of  hydraulic  literature  embrace  all  the 
cases  of  weir  measurements  that  are  ordinarily  met  with  in 
practice.  We  have  but  to  reproduce  the  conditions  of  those 
experiments  to  have  the  results  at  once  known  with  the  same 
degree  of  accuracy  that  distinguished  the  tank  measurements 
recorded  in  this  book.  As  is  well  known,  no  expense  was 


NOTE   C.  109 

spared  .n  the  conduct  of  the  Lowell  experiments  to  insure 
extreme  accuracy,  and  as  a  consequence  the  boon  of  exact 
knowledge  on  the  cases  of  weir  discharge  treated  in  the  book 
named  has  been  conferred,  by  these  experiments,  on  succeed- 
ing generations. 

Another  useful  method  of  measuring  water  applicable, 
however,  when  accuracy  is  desired,  only  in  rectangular 
channels  and  for  the  cases  of  a  uniform  flow  during  the  hour 
or  more  required  for  the  measurement,  is  presented  by  the 
use  of  floating  tubes.  This  method  is  a  very  old  one,  having 
been  first  used  by  Cabeo,  an  Italian  professor,  in  1646,  but 
the  method  was  first  accurately  tested,  and  established  as  a 
trustworthy  method  of  measuring  water,  by  Mr.  Francis,  as 
related  in  the  book  that  has  been  named,  in  Lowell  Hydraulic 
Experiments.  This  was  done  by  measuring  the  same  streams 
of  water  at  one  and  the  same  time,  both  over  a  weir  and  by 
means  of  floating  tubes.  It  will  not  be  in  the  power  of  man, 
presumably,  for  many  years  to  add  profitably  to  what  is  said 
on  this  method  of  measuring  water  in  the  book  that  has  been 
referred  to. 

We  now  come  to  two  instruments  that  enable  us  to 
determine  the  velocity  at  any  point  throughout  the  cross- 
section  of  a  stream  of  water.  I  allude  to  the  current-meter, 
or  moulinet,  or  Woltmann  wheel,  and  to  Pitot's  tube. 

For  small  streams  of  water,  for  jets,  or  in  the  interior  of 
pipes,  the  latter  instrument  alone  is  applicable  for  a  close 
investigation  of  the  distribution  of  the  velocities  of  the  water 
in  the  cross-section  of  the  stream.  In  large  canals  and  rivers 
the  current-meter  becomes  not  only  the  superior  instrument, 
but  almost  the  only  practicable  one.  Many  instruments 


HO  APPENDIX. 

have  been  invented  for  the  same  purpose,  or  were  invented 
in  the  early  days  of  hydraulic  science,  but  are  of  no  more 
practical  interest  now  than  would  be  an  examination  of  the 
bones  of  extinct  animals. 

Woltmann,  the  inventor  of  Woltmann's  wheel,  was  a 
hydraulic  engineer  employed  by  the  city  of  Hamburg,  who 
lived  from  1757  to  1837,  and  got  his  idea  of  the  current-meter 
from  an  anemometer  in  use  in  his  day.  Since  then  the  in- 
strument has  been  constructed  in  a  great  number  of  ways. 
At  first  it  had  to  be  taken  from  the  water  after  each  time  of 
running  some  definite  period  of  observation  to  get  the  read- 
ing. Latterly,  electrical  or  phonetic  connection  is  made 
between  the  meter  under  water  and  some  form  of  counter 
above  water,  so  that  observations  may  be  made  continuously. 
The  form  of  wheel,  also,  has  changed  many  times.  Care 
should  be  taken  that  the  wheel  be  as  little  liable  to  change  of 
form  as  possible,  and  that  all  parts,  such  as  bearings  that  pro- 
duce frictional  resistance,  be  as  constant  in  condition  as  possi- 
ble. All  this,  so  that  when  once  rated  the  instrument  may 
not  be  subject  to  a  change  of  rate.  It  is  not  exactly  correct 
to  assume  that  the  method  of  rating  usually  pursued,  that  of 
dragging  the  meter  through  still  water  at  known  velocities,  is 
mathematically  equivalent  to  letting  the  water,  moving  at  an 
average  velocity  equal  to  these  same  velocities,  impinge  upon 
the  meter  held  still.  Preliminary  reasoning  would  so  indicate, 
it  is  true,  but  a  closer  examination  reveals  differences,  and  in 
hydraulics  reasoning  alone  will  never  indicate  the  weight  to 
be  given  to  objections  or  to  analogies.  To  do  this,  resource 
must  always  be  had  to  the  results  of  careful  experiments. 

A  valuable  attribute  of  the  current-meter  is  the  fact  that 


NOTE   C.  Ill 

it  can  be  used  to  measure  the  average  velocity  in  a  vertical, 
or  in  a  horizontal,  or  in  a  whole  cross-section,  by  slowly  mov- 
ing the  meter  over  these  lines  or  areas  and  exposing  it  to  the 
current  for  equal  lengths  of  time  over  equal  spaces  or  areas. 
Some  excellent  work  of  thus  integrating  the  velocity  in  the 
cross-section  of  a  stream  and  other  results  of  experiments  with 
the  current-meter  may  be  found  described  in  an  article  by 
F.  P.  Stearns,  M.  Am.  Soc.  C.  E.,  in  the  Transactions  of 
that  Society  for  August  1883;  and  the  reports  of  the  Corps 
of  Engineers,  U.  S.  A.,  contain  many  examples  of  the  use  of 
the  current-meter  on  the  rivers  of  the  United  States.  See 
also  Engineering  News  of  January  10,  1895.  In  Europe, 
also,  in  Germany  and  France,  much  work  has  been  done  with 
it. 

The  modern  use  of  the  Pitot  tube  may  be  likened  to  that 
of  a  microscope  in  hydraulic  investigations  when  compared 
with  that  of  the  current-meter.  It  is  a  very  old  form  of  cur- 
rent-measuring apparatus,  Pitot  having  lived  from  1695  to 
1771,  but  the  instrument  has  received  many  improvements  at 
the  hands  of  Darcy  and  Bazin,  and  of  many  others.  The 
point  of  a  Cross  stylographic  pen,  with  the  central  wire 
removed,  has  been  a  favorite  form  of  the  tube  which  is 
directed  against  the  current  to  be  measured,  and  this  charac- 
teristic feature  will  give  an  idea  of  the  delicate  work  this 
instrument  is  capable  of.  Some  excellent  investigations  of 
this  sort  are  described  in  the  Transactions  of  the  American 
Society  of  Civil  Engineers  for  November  1889,  page  411,  in 
a  paper  on  Fire  Streams  by  John  R.  Freeman,  M.  Am.  Soc. 
C.  E. 

Another  method  of  measuring  water  is  by  means  of  the 


112  APPENDIX. 

Venturi  meter,  which  has  further  been  converted  by  the 
attachment  of  a  suitable  register  into  an  ordinary  dial  meter, 
like  the  house  meters  commonly  met  with.  There  being 
hardly  a  limit  at  which  the  size  of  the  stream  to  be  metered 
by  this  meter  becomes  too  large  for  it,  and  as  the  register  is 
essentially  the  same  for  small  meters  and  for  the  largest  sizes, 
we  could  with  the  Venturi  meter  register  on  a  train  of  dials 
the  daily  consumption  of  the  present  or  of  the  Greater  New 
York,  or  of  London,  or  of  the  two  combined,  as  easily  as  that  cf 
a  i/2-inch  stream.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  this  meter  has  already 
measured  the  flow  of  water  through  a  9-foot  tube  up  to  over 
245  cubic  feet  per  second,  about  160,000,000  gallons  per  24 
hours.  It  has  also  been  tested  on  a  i/4-inch  stream,  and 
meters  the  one  as  readily  as  it  does  the  other.  Nor  is  it 
affected  by  or  does  it  materially  affect  the  pressure  of  water 
at  either  the  intake  or  the  delivery  end ;  that  is  to  say,  it  can 
be  used  on  pipes  under  any  pressure  and  destroys  very  little 
of  the  head  or  pressure  for  purposes  of  passing  the  water 
through  the  meter.  For  instance,  it  need  never  thus  destroy 
more  than  a  foot  of  head  when  passing  maximum  quantities. 
A  48-inch  meter  in  use  on  the  works  of  the  East  Jersey 
Water  Company,  for  example,  loses  four  inches  of  head  ta 
meter  25,000,000  gallons  per  day.  And  by  the  use  of  by- 
passes, any  loss  of  head  need  obtain  only  during  the  period 
of  measuring  water. 

These  are  some  of  the  general  characteristics  of  the  instru- 
ment, which  may  now  be  described  more  in  detail,  the  more 
so  because  its  description  has  not  yet  been  placed  in  text- 
books generally,  although  Merriman's  Hydraulics  contains  a 
good  discussion  of  it. 


NOTE   C.  1 1- 3 

The  instrument  consists  of  a  converging,  followed  by  a 
gently  diverging,  tube ;  between  the  two  is  a  short  cylindrical 
piece,  surrounded  by  a  pressure-chamber  which  is  connected 
with  the  interior  by  piezometer-holes.  (See  Fig.  I.) 


FIG.  i. — VENTURI  METER. 

A  similar  pressure-chamber  surrounds  the  main  pipe  at 
the  inlet  end,  and  may  also  be  applied  to  the  main  pipe  at 
the  outlet  end,  if  it  be  desired  to  measure  the  loss  of  head  in 
passing  the  meter. 

Now  it  is  a  fundamental  principle  in  hydraulics  that  the 
hydraulic  pressure  of  the  water  against  the  interior  of  a  pipe 
containing  water  in  motion  is  equal  to  the  hydrostatic  head 
(to  what  the  pressure  would  be  if  the  water  stood  still)  less 
the  head  due  this  contained  velocity. 

Or  if  P  be  the  pressure  in  the  terms  of  the  height  of  a 

water-column  at  the  inlet, 
Pl  be  the  pressure  in  the  terms  of  the  height  of  a 

water-column  at  the  throat, 
v  =  the  velocity  at  the  inlet, 
vl  =  the  velocity  at  the  throat, 
Ps  =  the  static  pressure ;  then 

P=P--        and    p>  =  p'- 


IJ4  APPENDIX. 

Ordinarily  the  throat  is  made  1/3  the  diameter  of  the  main 
pipe,  or  its  area  =  1/9  of  the  main  pipe  area,  and  therefore 

v?        v*        80  v? 
v.  =  gv     and     P  —  P,=  -  --  —  =  —  —  . 

2g         2g         8l   2g 


But 


—  \  — 

V  80 


v  =  1.0062 


Experiments  show  that  in  fact  for  three  different  meters 
tested,  of  i  foot,  4  feet,  and  9  feet,  diameter  of  main  pipe, 
and  within  the  limits  of  velocity  ordinarily  met  with,  the 
coefficient  to  be  used  with  this  formula  varies  with  the  velocity 
through  the  three  meters  only  from  .972  to  .997,  which  is 
important  as  fixing  the  discharge  of  any  such  meter  without 
making  experiments  with  it.  After  such  a  meter  has  been 
rated  its  discharge  is  exceedingly  uniform  and  can  be  relied 
upon  as  correct  within  a  small  fraction  of  ifo  for  any  single 
reading. 

As  the  indications  necessary  for  the  measurement  of  the 
water  passing  through  a  Venturi  meter  are  merely  the  pres- 
sures in  two  little  pipes,  these  same  two  pressure-pipes  may 
be  used  to  operate  several  mechanisms  without  interfering 
with  each  other,  which  would  not  be  true  if,  for  instance, 
the  pressure-pipes  conveyed  a  stream  of  water,  instead  of 
only  static  pressures.  Thus  a  diagram  can  be  drawn  by 
them  that  will  indicate  the  rate  of  flow  through  the  meter  for 
any  convenient  length  of  time.  This  makes  the  meter  a  so- 
called  waste-water  meter,  used  to  find  and  to  locate  leaky 
house-fixtures  in  cities.  But  the  same  pressure-pipes  can  be 


NOTE   C.  H5 

used  to  operate  the  ordinary  form  of  register  (see  Fig.  2),  thus 
metering  the  water  as  in  the  common  forms  of  dial  meters. 
And  they  can  also  show  their  contained  pressures  directly  in 
glass  tubes,  or  on  Bourdon,  or  on  mercury  pressure-gauges, 
affording  the  means  of  testing  the  several  instruments  by 
computed  results. 

I  have  come  to  the  point  of  being  ready  to  set  the  tubes 
of  these  meters  at  selected  locations  throughout  the  distribu- 
tion system  of  cities,  so  as  to  be  able  to  meter  the  consump- 
tion of  any  one  or  more  of  its  several  districts  at  any  desired 
time.  The  loss  of  head  occasioned  is  so  small,  no  more  than 
is  caused  by  a  square  turn,  or  branch,  and  not  so  much  as 
is  caused  by  a  check-valve,  that  no  by-passes  need  be  set. 
Whenever  desired,  a  dial  register,  or  a  waste-water  indicator, 
can  be  set  up  at  any  convenient  place,  1000  feet,  if  need  be, 
from  the  tube,  and  connected  with  it  permanently  or  tem- 
porarily. Of  course  every  system  of  water-works  should  have 
a  Venturi  meter  on  its  main  pipe  or  conduit,  just  as  every  gas- 
works has  a  master  meter  to  measure  its  total  output  of  gas. 
If  set  in  the  penstocks  leading  to  turbines,  or  in  the  tail- 
races  of  mills  as  ordinarily  situated,  one  or  more  by-passes 
can  be  provided  in  very  particular  cases,  if  desired,  which  can 
remain  open  when  the  meter  is  not  in  use,  to  avoid  the  few 
inches'  loss  of  head  occasioned  by  the  meter  when  it  is  in 
action,  unless,  indeed,  the  situation  is  such  that  a  few  inches' 
loss  of  head  can  be  compensated  for,  or  such  that  they  are  of 
no  consequence. 

When  set  in  an  open  channel  the  case  becomes  somewhat 
peculiar.  The  pressure  at  the  throat  is  then  a  negative  one, 
or  is  measured  by  the  amount  of  suction,  or  of  "  vacuum," 


n6 


APPENDIX. 


FIG.  2. — REGISTER  OF  THE  VENTURI  METER. 


NOTE  D.  117 

it  will  produce.  But  the  difference  of  pressure  between  the 
same  two  pressure-pipes  governs  the  indications  of  the  meter 
as  before,  and  the  total  loss  of  head  is  much  less  than  if  a 
weir  had  been  used.  In  this  form,  anu  built  of  wood,  the 
Venturi  meter  is  destined,  in  my  belief,  to  do  important 
work  in  irrigation  practice.  Also  in  the  measurement  of 
sewage,  in  which  case  the  meter-tube  can  be  built  of  brick, 
and  with  the  invert  grade-line  undisturbed,  by  placing  the 
throat-area  eccentrically  to  the  area  of  the  main  sewer. 

Making  full  use  of  "  new-fangled  notions*'  is  peculiarly 
the  province  of  the  rising  generation;  and  I  look  confidently 
to  the  hydraulic  engineers  among  my  hearers  to  profit  by  the 
fact  that  a  meter  which  can  be  set  in  a  pipe  of  any  diameter, 
and  of  the  simple  construction  that  has  been  shown  you,  can 
now  be  put  to  use  in  their  practice. 

NOTE    D. 

Investigation  of  the  personality  of  the  originator  of  the 
Che'zy  formula  reveals  the  pathetic  history  of  a  human  life. 
The  original  sources  of  information  are: 

Biographic  Universelle,  vol.  V.,  A.  de  Che'zy. 

Le  Sage,  P.  C.,  Notice  de  Perronet.      1805. 

Prony,  Notice  de  Perronet.     Comptes  Rendus  of  April  29, 

1829. 

Biography  of  A.  L.  de  Che'zy  (son  of  A.  de  Che'zy) — a  dis- 
tinguished philologist,  and   one  of  the  first  to  study 
Sanskrit,  who  died  in  1832 — by  his  widow. 
See  also: 

Tarbe"    de    St.    Hardouin,    Notices    Biographiques,    etc. 
Paris,   1884. 


Il8  APPENDIX. 

From  these  it  appears  that  Antoine  de  Che"zy  was  born 
1718,  at  Chalons-sur-Marne,  and  died  at  Paris,  as  director  of 
the  Ecole  des  Fonts  et  Chauss£es,  in  1798,  having  held  the 
office  less  than  a  year.  The  city  hall  of  Chalons  contains  his 
bust,  by  Houdon,  and  his  portrait  is  in  the  Ecole  des  Fonts 
et  Chausse'es.  All  accounts  agree  that  his  modesty  went  to 
extremes.  He  wrote  many  valuable  papers,  but  published 
only  one,  on  the  Plumb-line  and  on  Levelling  Instru- 
ments, printed  in  the  1768  volume  of  "  Memoires  presented 
par  divers  Savants  Etrangers  " ;  translated  in  Nicholson 's 
Journal,  1800.  He  is  reputed  to  have  been  the  inventor  of 
the  engineer's  spirit-level.  His  essay  demonstrates  that 
exactitude  cannot  be  attained  by  using  plumb-lines,  be  they 
as  fine  as  practicability  will  admit  of,  and  he  then  describes 
the  proper  construction  of  spirit-level  tubes,  etc. 

As  assistant  to  his  father-in-law  Perronet,  he  took  part  in 
many  celebrated  works,  such  as  the  Neuilly  Bridge,  Canal  de 
Bourgogne,  Canal  de  1'Yvette,  etc.,  but  was  content  to  efface 
himself  in  all  accounts  of  those  works.  His  manuscript  report, 
of  1775,  on  the  Canal  de  1'Yvette,  said  to  contain  the  original 
Chezy  formula,  is  addressed  to  Perronet,  and  is  reported  to  be 
in  the  library  of  the  Ecole  des  Ponts  et  Chausse'es.  He  had 
been  appointed  by  the  government  to  report  on  this  work  in 
1769  with  Perronet.  Perronet  mentions  Ch£zy  in  a  memoire 
on  the  Canal  de  1'Yvette,  read  at  the  Academic  Royale  des 
Sciences,  Nov.  15,  1775,  but  gives  no  account  of  Ch£zy's 
part  of  the  work  done.  Le  Sage,  and  Prony  in  1804  in  a 
meeting  of  the  Institute,  and  again  in  his  Eulogy  of  Perronet, 
in  1829,  go  out  of  their  way  to  praise  Chezy.  Perhaps  the 
explanation  or  the  cause  of  all  this  is  written  when  it  is 


NOTE  D.  119 

stated  "  il  mourut  pauvre  " ;  he  died  poor.  For  six  months 
work  on  the  Canal  de  Bourgogne,  inclusive  of  the  making  of 
"  a  mass  of  reports,"  he  received  129  francs,  less  than  $26.00. 
It  must  be  admitted  that  this  is  small  pay,  even  in  France, 
and  in  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century,  especially  if,  as 
is  possible,  he  had  to  "  eat  himself  "  out  of  that,  such  as  it 
was.  Living  on  a  small  government  pension,  as  a  retired 
engineer  of  the  Fonts  et  Chaussees,  at  the  outbreak  of  the 
French  Revolution,  thereafter  paid  in  worthless  paper-money, 
he  found  himself  obliged  to  "  sell  the  horse-hair  out  of  his 
mattress  "  to  buy  food,  in  1795,  at  the  age  of  78.  Shortly 
after,  in  1797,  a  member  of  the  Directory,  Letourneur,  was 
induced  to  give  him  the  directorship  of  the  Ecole  des  Fonts 
et  Chaussees,  which  had  certainly  been  his  due  three  years 
before,  at  Perronet's  death,  if  not  before.  Che*zy  himself 
died  some  ten  months  later,  Oct.  5,  1798. 


INDEX. 


Asphalt  coating,  34,  59 
Astoria  pipe    34,  38 

B 

Bacon,  Apothegms;  13 
Benzenberg,  G.  A.,  78 
Buwie,  Aug.  J.,  Jr.,  2 
Brahms,  73 


California  riveted  pipe,  2 

Chezy  Antoine  de,  120 

Chezy  formula,  51,  67,  70,  72,  74 

Croton  conduit,  1895,  77 

Croton  Aqueduct  pipe,  I 

Computation  of   carrying  capacity, 

9,  ii 

Conduit  No.  i.  26,  56 
Conduit  No  2,  33,  59 
Current-meter,  109 


Darcy,  Henri,  4,  7,  34 
Dearborn,  W.  H.,  i. 
Diameter,  effect  of,  57,  59 
Dupuit,  51 

E 
East  Jersey  Water  Co.  conduits,  5 

ii,  26 
Eytelwein,  74 


Fanning,  J.  T.,  85 
Filaments,  76,  78 
Formulae,  forms  of,  68 
Frontinus,  94,  101 
Fteley,  A,  85 


Galileo,  n,  61,  97     „ 

Girard,  67,  74 

Goethe,  25 

Go-devil,  57 

Greene,  Genl.  Geo.  S.,  i 

H 

h,  44 

Hagen,  66 

Hering,  Rudolph,  91 

Holyoke  experiments,  4,  8,  34,  36 

"Hydraulics"  by  Hamilton   Smith 

Jr.,  2,  8,  10,  32,  33,  36,  87 
"Hydraulic  Mining,"  Bowie's,  2 


Joint  of  riveted  pipe,  33 

K 

Kearney  Extension,  32,  59 
Kuichling,  Emil,  7,  10,  15,  81,  86 
Kutter  formula,  69 


Lampe,  10 


121 


122 


INDEX. 


Lecky,  "Democracy  and  Liberty," 

7 

Lodge,  Henry  Cabot,  I 
Lucretius,  36 

M 

"  Measuring  Water,"  93 
Merriman,  Prof.  Mansfield,  67 
Milwaukee  sewer  experiment,   78 

N 
Nichols,  L.  L.,  3,  14,  21,  23 


Paracelsus,  25 

Pressure-difference  gauge,  40 
Piezometers,  48 
Pitot  tube,  109 

R 

Rafter,  Geo.  W.^  3,  9,  25 
Reynolds,  Osborne,  66 
Reservoir  gaugings,  14,  20,  38 
Riveted  pipe,  small  and  large  com- 
pared, 60 
Ritter,  67 

Rochester  conduit,  2,  8,  34,  56 
Rochester  "gaugings,"  3,  9,  13,  18, 
20 

S 

Starling,  Wm.,  71 
Scale  of  velocities,  77 


Schiller,  13 

Smith,  Hamilton,  Jr.,  82 

Sudbury  conduit,  77 


Table,  I,  of  the  115  experiments,  27 

Table  II,  coefficients  of  the  115  ex- 
periments, 52 

Table  III,  coefficients  for  new  rivet- 
ed pipe,  58 

Table  IV,  coefficients  for  old  riveted 
pipe,  60 

Tank  measurements,  37,  107 

Thucydides,  i 

Tubercles,  10 

Tubes,  floating,  109 

U 
Unwin,  Prof.  W.  C.,  42,  84. 


Venturi  meter,  36,  41,  43,  55,  89,  112 
Vinci,  Leonardo  da,  96,  105 
Vortex  motion,  75 

W 

Weir  gaugings,  39,  106 
Weisbach,  63 


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CATTLE  FEEDING— DAIRY  PRACTICE — DISEASES  OF  ANIMALS — 
GARDENING,  ETC. 

Arinsby's  Manual  of  Cattle  Feeding 12mo,  $1  75 

Downing's  Fruit  and  Fruit  Trees 8vo,  5  00 

Grotenfelt's  The  Principles  of  Modern  Dairy  Practice.     (Woll.) 

12mo,  2  00 

Kemp's  Landscape  Gardening 12mo,  2  50 

Lloyd's  Science  of  Agriculture 8vo,  4  00 

London's  Gardening  for  Ladies.     (Downing.) 12mo,  1  50 

Steel's  Treatise  on  the  Diseases  of  the  Dog , 8vo,  3  50 

"      Treatise  on  the  Diseases  of  the  Ox 8vo,  6  00 

Stockbridge's  Rocks  and  Soils 8vo,  2  50 

Woll's  Handbook  for  Farmers  and  Dairymen 12m o,  1  50 

ARCHITECTURE. 

BUILDING — CARPENTRY— STAIRS— VENTILATION,  ETC. 

Berg's  Buildings  and  Structures  of  American  Railroads 4to,  7  50* 

Birkmire's  American  Theatres — Planning  and  Construction.  8vo,  3  00 

"        Architectural  Iron  and  Steel 8vo,  3  50' 

Birkmire's  Compound  Riveted  Girders 8vo,  2  00 

"         Skeleton  Construction  in  Buildings 8vo,  3  00 

1 


Carpenter's  Heating  and  Ventilating  of  Buildings 8vo,  $3  00 

Downing,  Cottages 8vo,  2  50 

and  Wightwick's  Hints  to  Architects .8vo,  2  00 

Freitag's  Architectural  Engineering 8vo,  2  50 

Gerhard's  Sanitary  House  Inspection 16mo,  1  00 

Theatre  Fires  and  Panics 12mo,  150 

Hatfield's  American  House  Carpenter 8vo,  5  00 

Holly's  Carpenter  and  Joiner 18mo,  75 

Kidder's  Architect  and  Builder's  Pocket-book Morocco  flap,  4  00 

Merrill's  Stones  for  Building  and  Decoration 8vo,  5  00 

Monckton's  Stair  Building— Wood,  Iron,  and  Stone 4to,  4  00 

Stevens'  House  Painting 18mo,  75 

Worcester's  Small  Hospitals — Establishment  and  Maintenance, 
including  Atkinson's  Suggestions  for  Hospital  Archi- 
tecture    12mo,  1  25 

World's  Columbian  Exposition  of  1893 4to,  2  50 

ARMY,  NAVY,  Etc. 

MILITARY  ENGINEERING — ORDNANCE — PORT  CHARGES,  ETC. 

Bourne's  Screw  Propellers 4to,  5  00 

Bruff's  Ordnance  and  Gunnery , 8vo,  6  00 

BucknilPs  Submarine  Mines  and  Torpedoes 8vo,  4  00 

Chase's  Screw  Propellers 8vo,  3  00 

Cooke's  Naval  Ordnance 8vo,  12  50 

Cronkhite's  Gunnery  for  Non-com.  Officers 18mo,  morocco,  2  00 

De  Brack's  Cavalry  Outpost  Duties.     (Carr.) 18ino,  morocco,  200 

Dietz's  Soldier's  First  Aid 12mo,  morocco,  1  25 

*  Dredge's  Modern  French  Artillery 4to,  half  morocco,  20  00 

"         Record  of  the  Transportation   Exhibits    Building, 

World's  Columbian  Exposition  of  1893.. 4to,  half  morocco,  15  00 

Dyer's  Light  Artillery 12mo,  3  00 

Hoff' s  Naval  Tactics 8vo,  1  50 

Hunter's  Port  Charges 8vo,  half  morocco,  13  00 

Ingalls's  Ballistic  Tables 8vo,  1  50 

' '      Handbook  of  Problems  in  Direct  Fire 8 vo,  4  00 

Mahau's  Advanced  Guard 18mo,  1  50 

Permanent  Fortifications.  (Mercur.).Svo,  half  morocco,  7  50 
2 


Mercur's  Attack  of  Fortified  Places 12mo,  $2  00 

"       Elements  of  the  Art  of  War 8vo,  400 

Metcalfe's  Ordnance  and  Gunnery 12nio,  with  Atlas,  5  00 

Phelps's  Practical  Marine  Surveying 8vo,  2  50 

Powell's  Army  Officer's  Examiner 12mo,  4  00 

Reed's  Signal  Service 50 

Sharpe's  Subsisting  Armies 18mo,  morocco,  1  50 

Strauss  and  Alger's  Naval  Ordnance  and  Gunnery 

Todd  and  Whall's  Practical  Seamanship 8vo,  7  50 

Very's  Navies  of  the  World 8vo,  half  morocco,  3  50 

Wheeler's  Siege  Operations 8vo,  2  00 

Winthrop's  Abridgment  of  Military  Law 12mo,  2  50 

Woodhull's  Notes  on  Military  Hygiene 12mo,  morocco,  2  50 

Young's  Simple  Elements  of  Navigation..  12mo,  morocco  flaps,  2  50 

ASSAYING. 

SMELTING — ORE  DRESSING— ALLOYS,  ETC. 

Fletcher's  Quant.  Assaying  with  the  Blowpipe..  12mo,  morocco, .  1  50 

Furman's  Practical  Assaying 8vo,  3  00 

Kunhardt's  Ore  Dressing 8vo,  1  50 

*  Mitchell's  Practical  Assaying.     (Crookes. ) 8vo,  10  00 

O'Driscoll's  Treatment  of  Gold  Ores 8vo,  2  00 

Ricketts  and  Miller's  Notes  on  Assaying 8vo,  3  00 

Thurston's  Alloys,  Brasses,  and  Bronzes, 8vo,  2  50 

Wilson's  Cyanide  Processes 12rno,  1  50 

ASTRONOMY. 

PRACTICAL,  THEORETICAL,  AND  DESCRIPTIVE. 

"Craig's  Azimuth , 4to,  3  50 

Doolittle's  Practical  Astronomy 8vo,  4  00 

Gore's  Elements  of  Geodesy 8vo,  2  50 

Michie  and  Harlow's  Practical  Astronomy 8vo,  3  00 

White's  Theoretical  and  Descriptive  Astronomy 12mo,  2  00 

BOTANY. 

GARDENING  FOR  LADIES,  ETC. 

Baldwin's  Orchids  of  New  England 8vo,  $1  50 

Loudon's  Gardening  for  Ladies.     (Downing.) 12mo,  1  50 

3 


Thome's  Structural  Botany 18mo,    $2  25 

Westermaier's  General  Botany.     (Schneider.) 8vo,       2  00> 

BRIDGES,  ROOFS,    Etc. 

CANTILEVER — DRAW — HIGHWAY — SUSPENSION. 

(See  also  ENGINEERING,  p.  6.) 
Boiler's  Highway  Bridges 8vo,       2  00 

*  "      The  Thames  River  Bridge 4to,  paper,       500 

Burr's  Stresses  in  Bridges 8vo,       3  50 

Crehore's  Mechanics  of  the  Girder 8vo,      5  00 

Dredge's  Thames  Bridges 7  parts, 

Du  Bois's  Stresses  in  Framed  Structures 4to,     10  00 

Foster's  Wooden  Trestle  Bridges 4to,      5  00 

Greene's  Arches  in  Wood,  etc 8vo,      2  50 

' '        Bridge  Trusses 8vo,      2  50 

RoofTrusses 8vo,       125 

Howe's  Treatise  on  Arches 8vo, 

Johnson's  Modern  Framed  Structures .4to,     10  00 

Merriman    &    Jacoby's    Text-book    of    Roofs    and    Bridges. 

Parti.,  Stresses 8vo,      250 

Merriman    &    Jacoby's     Text-book    of    Roofs    and     Bridges. 

Part  II.,  Graphic  Statics, 8vo,       2  50 

Merriman   &    Jacoby's     Text-book    of    Roofs    and     Bridges. 

Part  III.,  Bridge  Design Svo,      5  Oft 

Merriman    &   Jacoby's    Text-book    of    Roofs    and    Bridges. 

Part  IV.,  Continuous,  Draw,  Cantilever,  Suspension,  and 

Arched  Bridges (In  preparation). 

*  Morison's  The  Memphis  Bridge Oblong  4to,     10  00' 

Waddell's  Iron  Highway  Bridges Svo,      4  00 

Wood's  Construction  of  Bridges  and  Roofs Svo,      2  00* 

Wright's  Designing  of  Draw  Spans Svo,      2  50 

CHEMISTRY. 

QUALITATIVE — QUANTITATIVE — ORGANIC — INORGANIC,  ETC. 

Adriance's  Laboratory  Calculations 12mo,       1  25 

Allen's  Tables  for  Iron  Analysis Svo,      3  00 

Austen's  Notes  for  Chemical  Students 12mo,      1  50 

Bolton's  Student's  Guide  in  Quantitative  Analysis ...  .Svo,       1  50- 


Classen's  Analysis  by  Electrolysis.     (Herrick.) 8vo,  $3  00 

Oafts's  Qualilative  Analysis.     (Schaeffer.) 12mo,  1  50 

Drechsel's  Chemical  Reactions.    (Merrill.) 12mo,  1  25 

Presenius's  Quantitative  Chemical  Analysis.    (Allen.) 8vo,  6  00 

Qualitative  Chemical  Analysis.    (Johnson.) 8vo,  400 

Oill's  Gas  and  Fuel  Analysis 12mo,  1  25 

Hammarsten's  Physiological  Chemistry  (Handel.) 8vo,  4  00 

Kolbe's  Inorganic  Chemistry 12mo,  1  50 

Handel's  Bio-chemical  Laboratory 12mo,  1  50 

Mason's  Water  Supply 8vo,  5  00 

Miller's  Chemical  Physics 8vo,  2  00 

Mixter's  Elementary  Text-book  of  Chemistry 12mo,  1  50 

Morgan's  Principles  of  Mathematical  Chemistry 12mo,  1  50 

"         The  Theory  of  Solutions  and  its  Results 12mo,  1  00 

Nichols's  Water  Supply  (Chemical  and  Sanitary) 8vo,  2  50 

O'Brine's  Laboratory  Guide  to  Chemical  Analysis 8vo,  2  00 

Perkins's  Qualitative  Analysis 12mo,  1  00 

Pinner's  Organic  Chemistry.     (Austen.) 12mo,  1  50 

Ricketts  and  Russell's  Notes  on  Inorganic  Chemistry  (Non- 
metallic)  ,  Oblong  8vo,  morocco,  75 

Schimpf's  Volumetric  Analysis 12mo,  2  50 

Spencer's  Sugar  Manufacturer's  Handbook .  12mo,  morocco  flaps,  2  00 

Stockbridge's  Rocks  and  Soils 8vo,  2  50 

Troilius's  Chemistry  of  Iron , 8vo,  2  00 

Wiechmann's  Chemical  Lecture  Notes 12mo,  3  00 

"            Sugar  Analysis ., 8vo,  2  50 

IVulling's  Inorganic  Phar.  and  Med.  Chemistry 12mo,  2  00 

DRAWING. 
ELEMENTARY — GEOMETRICAL — TOPOGRAPHICAL. 

Hill's  Shades  and  Shadows  and  Perspective 8vo,  2  00 

MacCord's  Descriptive  Geometry 8vo,  3  00 

Kinematics 8vo,  500 

"         Mechanical  Drawing 8vo,  400 

Mahan's  Industrial  Drawing.    (Thompson.) 2  vols.,  8vo,  3  50 

Reed's  Topographical  Drawing.    (H.  A.) 4to,  5  00 

Smith's  Topographical  Drawing.     (Macmillan.) 8vo,  2  50 

Warren's  Descriptive  Geometry 2  vols.,  8vo,  3  50 

5 


Warren's  Drafting  Instruments 12mo,  1  25 

"        Free-hand  Drawing    12ino,  $1  00 

'*        Higher  Linear  Perspective  8vo,  3  50 

"        Linear  Perspective 12mo,  1  00 

"        Machine  Construction 2  vols.,  8vo,  7  50 

Plane  Problems , 12mo,  125 

"        Primary  Geometry 12mo,  75 

"        Problems  and  Theorems 8vo,  250 

"        Projection  Drawing 12mo,  1  50 

"        Shades  and  Shadows 8vo,  300 

"        Stereotomy— Stone  Cutting. 8vo,  250 

Whelpley's  Letter  Engraving 12uio,  2  00 

ELECTRICITY  AND  MAGNETISM. 

ILLUMINATION— BATTERIES— PHYSICS. 

Anthony  and  Brackett's  Text-book  of  Physics  (Magie).   . .  .8vo,  4  00 

Barker's  Deep-sea  Soundings 8vo,  2  00 

Benjamin's  Voltaic  Cell 8vo,  3  00 

Cosmic  Law  of  Thermal  Repulsion 18mo,  75 

Crehore  and  Squier's  Experiments  with  a  New  Polarizing  Photo- 
Chronograph 8vo,  3  00 

*  Dredge's  Electric  Illuminations 2  vols.,  4to,  half  morocco,  25  00 

Vol.  II 4to,  750 

Gilbert's  De  magnete.    (Mottelay.) 8vo,  2  50 

Holmau's  Precision  of  Measurements 8vo,  2  00 

Michie's  Wave  Motion  Relating  to  Sound  and  Light 8vo,  4  00 

Morgan's,  The  Theory  of  Solutions  and  its  Results 12nio, 

Niaudet's  Electric  Batteries.     (Fishback.) .12mo,  2  50 

Reagan's  Steam  and  Electrical  Locomotives 12mo  2  00 

Thurston's  Stationary  Steam  Engines  for  Electric  Lighting  Pur- 
poses  12mo,  1  50 

Tillman's  Heat 8vo,  1  50 

ENGINEERING. 

CIVIL — MECHANICAL— SANITARY,  ETC. 

(See  also  BRIDGES,  p.  4;  HYDRAULICS,  p.  8;  MATERIALS  OF  EN- 
GINEERING, p.  9  ;  MECHANICS  AND  MACHINERY,  p.  11  ;  STEAM  ENGINES 
AND  BOILERS,  p.  14.) 

Baker's  Masonry  Construction 8vo,  5  00 

6 


Baker's  Surveying  Instruments 12mo,  3  00 

Black's  U.  S.  Public  Works '.4to,  $5  00 

Butts's  Engineer's  Field-book 12mo,  morocco,  2  50 

Byrne's  Highway  Construction .8vo,  5  00 

Carpenter's  Experimental  Engineering  8vo,  6  00 

Church's  Mechanics  of  Engineering — Solids  and  Fluids. ..  .8vo,  6  00 

"        Notes  and  Examples  in  Mechanics 8vo,  2  00 

Crandall's  Earthwork  Tables  , 8vo,  1  50 

Crandall's  The  Transition  Curve 12mo,  morocco,  1  50 

*  Dredge's  Penu.  Railroad  Construction,  etc.  . .  Folio,  half  mor.,  20  00 

*  Drinker's  Tunnelling 4to,  half  morocco,  25  00 

Eissler's  Explosives — Nitroglycerine  and  Dynamite 8vo,  4  00 

Gerhard's  Sanitary  House  Inspection 16mo,  1  00 

Godwin's  Railroad  Engineer's  Field-book.  12mo,  pocket-bk.  form,  2  GO 

Gore's  Elements  of  Goodesy 8vo,  2  50 

Howard's  Transition  Curve  Field-book 12mo,  morocco  flap,  1  50 

Howe's  Retaining  Walls  (New  Edition.) 12mo,  1  25 

-  Hudson's  Excavation  Tables.    Vol.  II 8vo,  1  00 

Button's  Mechanical  Engineering  of  Power  Plants 8vo,  5  00 

Johnson's  Materials  of  Construction 8vo,  6  00 

Johnson's  Stadia  Reduction  Diagram.  .Sheet.  22|  X  28£  inches,  50 

"         Theory  and  Practice  of  Surveying 8vo,  4  00 

Kent's  Mechanical  Engineer's  Pocket-book 12mo,  morocco,  5  00 

Kicrsted's  Sewage  Disposal 12mo,  1  25 

Kirkwood's  Lead  Pipe  for  Service  Pipe 8vo,  1  50 

Mahan's  Civil  Engineering.     (Wood.) 8vo,  5  00 

Merriman  and  Brook's  Handbook  for  Surveyors. . .  .12mo,  mor.,  2  00 

Merriman's  Geodetic  Surveying 8vo,  2  00 

"          Retaining  Walls  and  Masonry  Dams 8vo,  2  00 

Mosely's  Mechanical  Engineering.     (Mahan.) 8vo,  5  00 

Nagle's  Manual  for  Railroad  Engineers .12mo,  morocco, 

Patton's  Civil  Engineering .8vo,  7  50 

"      Foundations 8vo,  500 

Rockwell's  Roads  and  Pavements  in  France 12mo,  1  25 

Ruff uer's  Non-tidal  Rivers: 8vo,  1  25 

Searles's  Field  Engineering 12mo,  morocco  flaps,  3  00 

Searles's  Railroad  Spiral 12mo,  morocco  flaps,  1  50 

7 


Siebert  and  Biggin's  Modern  Stone  Cutting  and  Masonry. .  .8vo,  1  50 

Smith's  Cable  Tramways 4to,  $2  50 

1 '      Wire  Manufacture  and  Uses 4to,  3  00 

Spalding's  Roads  aud  Pavements 12mo,  2  00 

"          Hydraulic  Cement 12mo, 

Thurston's  Materials  of  Construction  8vo,  5  00 

*  Trautwine's  Civil  Engineer's  Pocket-book.  ..12mo,  mor.  flaps,  5  00 

*  "           Cross-section Sheet,  25 

*  "           Excavations  and  Embankments 8vo,  200 

*  "           Laying  Out  Curves 12mo,  morocco,  2  50 

Warren's  Stereotomy — Stone  Cutting 8vo,  2  50 

Webb's  Engineering  Instruments 12mo,  morocco,  1  00 

Wegmann's  Construction  of  Masonry  Dams 4to,  5  00 

Wellington's  Location  of  Railways. . . 8vo,  5  00 

Wheeler's  Civil  Engineering 8vo,  4  00 

Wolff's  Windmill  as  a  Prime  Mover 8vo,  3  00 

HYDRAULICS. 

WATER-WHEELS — WINDMILLS — SERVICE  PIPE — DRAINAGE,  ETC. 

(See  also  ENGINEERING,  p.  6. ) 
Bazin's  Experiments  upon  the  Contraction  of  the  Liquid  Vein 

(Trautwine) 8vo,  2  00 

Bovey's  Treatise  on  Hydraulics 8vo,  4  00 

Coffin's  Graphical  Solution  of  Hydraulic  Problems.  12mo,  mor., 

Ferrers  Treatise  on  the  Winds,  Cyclones,  and  Tornadoes. .  .8vo,  4  00 

Ganguillet  &  Kutter'sFlow  of  Water.  (Hering&  Trautwine  ).8vo,  4  00 

Hazen's  Filtration  of  Public  Water  Supply 8vo,  2  00 

Kiersted's  Sewage  Disposal 12mo,  1  25 

Kirkwood's  Lead  Pipe  for  Service  Pipe 8vo,  1  50 

Mason's  Water  Supply 8vo,  5  00 

Merriman's  Treatise  on  Hydraulics. 8vo,  4  00 

Nichols's  Water  Supply  (Chemical  and  Sanitary) 8vo,  2  50 

Ruffner's  Improvement  for  Non-tidal  Rivirs 8vo,  1  25 

Wegmaun's  Water  Supply  of  the  City  of  New  York 4to,  10  00 

Weisbach's  Hydraulics.     (Du  Bois.) 8vo,  5  00 

Wilson's  Irrigation  Engineering Svo,  4  00 

Wolff's  Windmill  as  a  Prime  Mover Svo,  3  00 

Wood's  Theory  of  Turbines Svo,  2  50 

8 


MANUFACTURES. 

ANILINE — BOILERS— EXPLOSIVES— IRON—  SUGAR — WATCHES  — 
WOOLLENS,  ETC. 

Allen's  Tables  for  Iron  Analysis 8vo,  $3  00 

Beaumont's  Woollen  and  Worsted  Manufacture 12ino,  1  50 

Bollaud's  Encyclopaedia  of  Founding  Terms 12mo,  3  00 

"        The  Iron  Founder 12mo,  250 

"          "       "          "        Supplement 12mo,  250 

Booth's  Clock  and  Watch  Maker's  Manual 12mo,  2  00 

Bouvier's  Handbook  on  Oil  Painting 12mo,  2  00 

Eissler's  Explosives,  Nitroglycerine  and  Dynamite 8vo,  4  00 

Ford's  Boiler  Making  for  Boiler  Makers 18mo,  1  00 

Metcalfe's  Cost  of  Manufactures 8vo,  5  00 

Metcalf 's  Steel— A  Manual  for  Steel  Users 12mo,  2  00 

Reimann's  Aniline  Colors.     (Crookes.). ...  8vo,  2  50 

*Reisig's  Guide  to  Piece  Dyeing 8vo,  25  00 

Spencer's  Sugar  Manufacturer's  Handbook. . .  .12mo,  inor.  flap,  2  00 

Svedelius's  Handbook  for  Charcoal  Burners 12mo,  1  50 

The  Lathe  and  Its  Uses 8vo,  600 

Thurston's  Manual  of  Steam  Boilers 8vo,  5  00 

West's  American  Foundry  Practice 12mo,  2  50 

"      Moulder's  Text-book 12mo,  2  50 

Wiechmaun's  Sugar  Analysis 8vo,  2  50 

IVoodbury's  Fire  Protection  of  Mills 8vo,  2  50 

MATERIALS  OF  ENGINEERING. 

STRENGTH — ELASTICITY — RESISTANCE,  ETC. 

(See  also  ENGINEERING,  p.  6.) 

Baker's  Masonry  Construction 8vo,  5  00 

Beardslee  and  Kent's  Strength  of  Wrought  Iron 8vo,  1  50 

Bovey's  Strength  of  Materials 8vo,  7  50 

Burr's  Elasticity  and  Resistance  of  Materials 8vo,  5  00 

Byrne's  Highway  Construction 8vo,  5  00 

Carpenter's  Testing  Machines  and  Methods  of  Testing  Materials 

Church's  Mechanic's  of  Engineering — Solids  and  Fluids 8vo,  6  00 

Du  Bois's  Stresses  in  Framed  Structures 4to,  10  00 

Hatfield's  Transverse  Strains 8vo,  5  00 

Johnson's  Materials  of  Construction 8vo,  6  00 

9 


Lanza's  Applied  Mechanics 8vo,  $7  50 

"        Strength  of  Wooden  Columns 8vo,  paper,  50 

Merrill's  Stones  for  Building  and  Decoration 8vo,  5  00 

Merriinan's  Mechanics  of  Materials 8vo,  4  00 

Pattou's  Treatise  on  Foundations , 8vo,  5  00 

Rockwell's  Roads  and  Pavements  in  France 12mo,  1  25 

Spaldiug's  Roads  and  Pavements 12mo,  2  00 

Hydraulic  Cement 12mo, 

Thurston's  Materials  of  Construction ...... 8vo,  5  00 

Thurston's  Materials  of  Engineering 3  vols.,  8vo,  8  00 

Vol.  I. ,  Non-metallic  8vo,  2  00 

Vol.  II.,  Iron  and  Steel Svo,  3  50 

Vol.  III.,  Alloys,  Brasses,  and  Bronzes 8vo,  2  50 

Weyrauch's  Strength  of  Iron  and  Steel.    (Du  Bois.) 8vo,  1  50 

Wood's  Resistance  of  Materials Svo,  2  00 

MATHEMATICS. 
CALCULUS— GEOMETRY— TRIGONOMETRY,  ETC. 

Baker's  Elliptic  Functions Svo,  1  50 

Ballard's  Pyramid  Problem  Svo,  1  50 

Barnard's  Pyramid  Problem Svo,  1  50 

Bass's  Differential  Calculus 12mo,  4  00 

Brigg's  Plane  Analytical  Geometry 12mo,  1  00 

Chapman's  Theory  of  Equations 12mo,  1  50 

Chessin's  Elements  of  the  Theory  of  Functions 

Comptou's  Logarithmic  Computations 12mo,  1  50 

Craig's  Linear  Differential  Equations Svo,  5  00 

Davis's  Introduction  to  the  Logic  of  Algebra Svo,  1  50 

Halsted's  Elements  of  Geometry ,..8vo,  175 

Synthetic  Geometry Svo,  150 

Johnson's  Curve  Tracing 12mo,  1  00 

"        Differential  Equations — Ordinary  and  Partial Svo,  3  50 

Integral  Calculus 12mo,  150 

"        Least  Squares 12rno,  1  50 

Ludlow's  Logarithmic  and  Other  Tables.     (Bass.) Svo,  2  00 

Trigonometry  with  Tables.     (Bass.) Svo,  300 

Mahan's  Descriptive  Geometry  (Stone  Cutting) Svo,  1  50 

Merrimau  and  Woodward's  Higher  Mathematics 8vo,  5  00 

Merriman's  Method  of  Least  Squares 8vo,  2  00- 

10 


Parker's  Quadrature  of  the  Circle *. 8vo,  $2  50 

Rice  and  Johnson's  Differential  and  Integral  Calculus, 

2  vols.  ml,  12mo,  2  50 

"                 Differential  Calculus 8vo,  350 

««                 Abridgment  of  Differential  Calculus 8vo,  150 

Searles's  Elements  of-  Geometry 8vo,  1  50 

Totten's  Metrology 8vo,  2  50 

Warren's  Descriptive  Geometry 2  vols.,  8vo,  3  50 

1 '        Drafting  Instruments 12mo,  1  25 

Free-hand  Drawing 12mo,  100 

"        Higher  Linear  Perspective 8vo,  350 

"        .Linear  Perspective 12mo,  100 

"        Primary  Geometry 12mo,  75 

Plane  Problems 12mo,  1  25 

Plane  Problems 12mo,  125 

"        Problems  and  Theorems 8vo,  2  50 

"        Projection  Drawing 12mo,  150 

Wood's  Co-ordinate  Geometry 8vo,  2  00 

"       Trigonometry , 12mo,  1  00 

Woolf's  Descriptive  Geometry Royal  8vo,  3  00 

MECHANICS-MACHINERY. 

TEXT-BOOKS  AND  PRACTICAL  WORKS. 
(See  also  ENGINEERING,  p.  6.) 

Baldwin's  Steam  Heating  for  Buildings 12mo,  2  50 

Benjamin's  Wrinkles  and  Recipes 12mo,  2  00 

Carpenter's  Testing  Machines  and  Methods  of  Testing 

Materials 8vo, 

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UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 


THIS  BOOK  IS  DUE  ON  THE  LAST  DATE 
STAMPED  BELOW 


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S3  1931 


iHt  2  5  1968 


30m-l,'15 


YC  I348i 


/  7V- 


t 


